. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 






UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 



From Prof. J. Tuckerman, Ph. D., LL. D., President of Grand Miver 

Institute. 

AusTiNBURG, Ohio, March 19th, 1878. 
Rev. W. Colegrove. 

Ml/ Dear Sir, — I have just finished looking over the manuscript of 
your Grammar ; and I am constrained to say that in its plan, its phil- 
osophical arrangement, its completeness, and its accuracy, it is superior 
to any other work of the kind which I have ever examined. 

The definitions are so clear and concise, the method of analysis is so 
logical, and the chapters on Prosody and Composition are so exact and 
exhaustive that the work must commend itself to every practical in- 
structor. 

Very truly yours, 

J. Tuckerman. 



From Rev. Benj'n Bailey, Member of the Board of Examiners of 

Taylor Co., W. Va. 

ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

I have read with deep interest and much pleasure and profit the 
manuscript of Professor William Colegrove's Grammar of the English 
Language, keeping before my mind throughout a careful comparison 
of it with the difierent text-books which I have used in school from 
1841 to 1878, and more than a score of others which I have read and 
not used ; and I do not hesitate to say that in clearness, brevity, and 
accuracy of definitions, correct classification of sentences, appositeness 
and fulness in the rules of syntax, and the plan of arrangement for a 
text book, it is preferable to any other work on the science of English 
Grammar that I have examined. The mature and ripe scholarship of 
the author, from the beginning to the end of this work, sheds a strong 
and steady light on the philosophy of language, and in the simplest and 
most perspicuous style, unfolds every mystery and explains every 
difficulty which might, discourage the student or impede his progress 
in the pursuit of this difficult science. Every teacher ought to make 
himself acquainted with this treatise on English Grammar. It would 
create in him a new interest in this branch of study, and save him from 
much confusion and perplexity in the school room. 

Benjamin BAiLEy, Flemington, W. Va. 

February 15th, 1878. 



SENTENCE CHART. 



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A COMPLETE 



SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 



OF THE 



EIsTGLISH LANGUAGE, 



WITH AN APPENDIX CONTAINING 



A TBEATISE ON COMPOSITION, 



SPECIMENS OF ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE, 



A DEFENSE OF PHONETICS, &c., &c., 



FOR THE USE OP 



COLLEGES, SCHOOLS, AND PRIVATE LEARNERS. 
W;>T10LEGK0VE, A. M,, 



PBBSIDENT OF WEST VIRGINIA COLLEGE. 






.,y^ 







NEW YORK: 
THE AUTHOES' PUBLISHJNa COMPANY, 

1879. 



7 E ii'i 



Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1879, by 

W. COLEGROVE, 
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. 



TO 

PROFESSOR J. TUCKERMAN, Ph.D., LL.D., 

PRESIDENT OP THE GRAND RIVER INSTITUTE, 

THIS WOBK IS DEDICATED 

BY THE AUTHOE, 

AS A TOKEN OF SINCEEE LOVE AND RESPECT, AND AS A MEMENTO OP 

A liONG AND HAPPY FRIENDSHIP. 



W-C; 



(v) 



PEEFACE. 



English Grammar is at present in the same condition in which Coper- 
nicus found Astronomy, when it was taught that the earth is the great 
centre of the Universe, and that the sun, moon, planets, and stars re- 
volve about it once in twenty-four hours. 

The text books are filled with a mass of absurdity and contradiction 
totally unworthy of the name of science ; and the time and labor of 
those who use them are worse than wasted. 

This state of things is a disgrace to the scholarship of the age, and 
calls loudly for a reformation. 

The absolute truth of these statements can easily be demonstrated ; 
but there is no room in this volume for such matter. Lest, however, 
any one should think the author to be peculiar and extreme in his 
views, let a few others be heard. 

President Eliot, of Harvard University, says " I consider the present 
system of teaching English Grammar in our elementary schools irra- 
tional and fruitless." 

Prof. Child, of the same University, says " I do not know that I ever 
before saw an English Grammar which I would permit my children to 
look into, so great the chance has been that they would learn nothing 
or le taugJit something false." 

The New England Journal of Education agrees with Mr. Epes Sar- 
gent in calling our ordinary grammars " a hlot on American scholar- 
ship." 

The New York Evening Post refers to the common system as " an 
ii'rational system "/ and the Maryland School Journal calls it " a nau- 
seous mixture for unfortunate juveniles." 

Similar testimonies might be multiplied indefinitely ; and they seem 
to harmonize perfectly with the author's views. They are undoubt- 
edly sound testimonies ; and there is in fact abundant reason for the 
almost universal dissatisfaction with English Grammar as taught in our 
schools. 

In the present work it has been the aim of the author thoroughly to 
reconstruct the science from its foundation, and to bring it into har- 
mony with other departments of modern learning ; and he has no doubt 

(yii) 



viii PREFACE. 

that one year devoted to the study of this treatise will be worth more 
to the student than ten years spent upon the ordinary books. 

This work is designed more especially for the use of the higher in- 
stitutions; but, omitting the parts marked with an Asterisk (*) or 
Obelisk (f), it is sufficiently elementary for any pupils old enough to 
study grammar at all. It is intended to be a complete treatise, — simple 
enough for the beginner, and comprehensive enough for the college 
student. 

Careful attention is invited to all parts of the work, but especially 
to the brevity, clearness, and Geometrical accuracy of the definitions, 
to the thorough treatment of Phonetics and Orthography, of Inflection 
and Derivation, of Analysis and Punctuation, of Synthesis, of Prosody, 
and of Composition ; — to the logical arrangement of the topics, the 
Scientific Nomenclature, the Classification of the Irregular Verbs, the 
treatment of the Prepositions, the multitude of Examples and Exer- 
cises, the Models of Analysis and Parsing (among which are many solu- 
tions of grammatical difficulties), the Transformation of Sentences, and 
the Analytical Index ; — to the Charts of Words, Phrases, and Senten- 
ces ; — and to the perfect adaptation of the work to the Topical Method 
of recitation. 

The Analysis of Sentences, although very brief and simple, is yet 
thorough and searching, and also complete, — embracing all the senten- 
ces of the language, while the ordinary systems of Analysis, besides be- 
ing false and self-contradictory, are very prolix and cumbersome, and 
are, moreover, defective, — scarcely embracing one-half of the sentences 
of the language. 

The System of Punctuation, also, which this Analysis has rendered 
possible, though comprised in a few pages, is more comprehensive and 
infinitely more practical and correct than any other whatever. It is 
adequate to the wants of the Printer, and will, it is hoped, bring some- 
thing like order out of the existing chaos in that department. 

The Scientific Nomenclature used (for the first time, so far as the 
author is aware) in the classification of Words, Phrases, Sentences, 
etc., seems to be as valuable in Grammar as in Botany or Zoology ; and 
the employment of it, together with a Scientific Method, appears to 
justify the word " Scientific " in the Title of this Work. 

The rules for Spelling, Accent, and Syllabication, have been made to 
conform substantially to the latest edition of Webster's Unabridged 
Dictionary. 

The chapter on Synonyms, though very short, is very comprehensive, 
and also very important to the advanced student. 

The brief treatise on Prosody will certainly be appreciated by every 
intelligent teacher and student as well as by every incipient Poet, as 
it seems to be the only accessible one of even tolerable completeness. 



PREFACE. ix 

The advancing civilization of the English-speaking people has cer- 
tainly reached a point where English Prosody ought to receive much 
more attention than hitherto. 

The short and practical chapter on Composition will not escape the 
notice of those who have felt the need of such a thing. 

The set of detached sentences will be found of great service as Ex- 
ercises for Analysis and Parsing. 

The Selections are also valuable, embracing choice specimens of 
English and American Literature, at intervals of fifty years or less, 
from Anglo-Saxon times down to the present. 

In the older specimens the original spelling has been preserved, and 
the punctuation as far as possible. In the specimens, both English and 
American, belonging to the present century the punctuation conforms 
to the system given in this work. 

The extremely important subject of Phonetic Keform receives some 
attention in Note 1, in the Appendix. 

Finally this work is committed by the author to the hands of his 
countrymen, and especially of his fellow Teachers, with the hope that 
it may serve to lighten the labor of instruction, and smooth the rugged- 
ness of the path which leads up the Hill of Science. 

Especially does the author hope that students may no longer be 
obliged to waste their time and stultify their intellects in toiling over 
the miserable trash which has usurped the name of English Grammar, 
and that Teachers may be saved from the humiliation of being com- 
pelled to teach for truth and science that which they know to be false- 
hood and utter nonsense. 

West Virginia College, Nov. 28d, 1878. 



IE"TEODUOTIO]^. 



PEOF. GEIMM OK THE El^GLISH LAI^GUAGE. 

The eminent German Philologist, Jacob Grimm, in refer- 
ence to the English Language, says : 

" ISTo other Language equals it.— With a law and genius 
of its own, it levies contributions upon all other languages, 
and incorporates the power and beauty, — the heart and core 
-^of every other tongue into it. 

''For perspicuity and force, — for elegance and smooth- 
ness, — poetry and science, — metaphysics and theology, — the 
pulpit or the forum, — the senate or the bar, — for any and 
every use, — there is no other language which equals it.* * * 

" The English Language is rapidly spreading into all lands, 
and will, according to present indications, soon become the 
language of commerce in all nations. The English and 
Americans are in the East Indies, in Australia, at the Cape 
of Good Hope, and on the coast of China ; — in Asia, Africa, 
Europe and America ; — on all continents, seas, and islands ; — 
along all lines of travel, where they find or leave some who 
speak the language. 

" The English Language has a veritable power of expres- 
sion such as, perhaps, never stood at the command of any 
other language of men. Its highly spiritual genius and 
wonderfully happy development and condition, have been 
the result of a surprisingly intimate union of the two noblest 
languages in Europe, the Teutonic and the Romanic. 

" It is well known in what relation these two stand to 
each other in the English tongue, — the former supplying, 
in far larger proportion, the material groundwork, — the lat- 
ter the spiritual conceptions. 

" In truth, the English Language, which by no mere acci- 

(xi) 



xii INTRODUCTION. 

dent has produced and upborne the greatest and most 
predominant poet of modern times, as distinguished from 
the ancient Classical Poets (I can, of course, only mean 
Shakspeare), may, with all right, be called a world language ; 
and, like the English people, it appears destined hereafter 
to prevail, with a sway more extensive than its present, over 
all the portions of the globe. 

" In wealth, good sense, and closeness of structure, no 
other of the languages at this day spoken deserves to be 
compared with it, — not even our German, which is torn, 
even as we are torn, and must first rid itself of many defects 
before it can enter boldly into the lists as a competitor with 
the English." 

THE STUDY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

The study of language has always been a favorite pur- 
suit with people of cultivation and refinement, and has 
always proved a most efficient means of securing that refine- 
ment of taste and manners and that vigor of intellect which 
characterize the best society. 

For this purpose the study of the English Language is 
second to that of no other. In fact we have the best lan- 
guage in the world, as is acknowledged even by foreigners. 

Such a language ought to be studied faithfully, at least 
by all who use it, and for reasons almost innumerable. 

ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

The most ancient inhabitants of Europe of whom we have 
any account were called Celts (Kelts). 

This term has the same origin as the words Gael and 
Gaul, and is supposed to have reference to their fair com- 
plexions. 

They came originally from Asia, settling in the eastern 
part of Europe first, and afterwards, as their necessities or 
inclinations prompted, extending their emigrations west- 
ward until they reached the Atlantic. 

It appears that those who first se'ttled in England were, 
after a time, driven from their lands by a fresh emigration of 



INTRODUCTION. xiii 

adventurers, more warlike or numerous than themselves, and 
were obliged to take refuge in the highlands of Scotland, 
whence colonies passed into Ireland. 

The lano-uage of these new comers probably did not differ 
essentially from that of the first, and had some relationship to 
the Persian. But they were themselves subdued, after a time, 
by the Romans, whose language, though from the same origin- 
al stock, had by cultivation become very dissimilar to theirs. 

While under the Romans (about four hundred years) the 
language of England proper became mostly Latin, but 
retained a large mixture of words from the native dialect. 

The Roman armies being at length withdrawn from Eng- 
land the country was invaded by the Picts and Scots from 
the north. — In this emergency the Britons invited the 
Saxons, a warlike people of Celtic origin in Germany, to 
come to their assistance. 

The Saxons came, and not only drove back the Picts and 
Scots, but at length subdued the Britons themselves, and 
remained masters of the country. 

Another German tribe called the Angles, or inhahitants 
of the level country^ whose language was much like that of 
the Saxons (Old Frisic, whence comes the modern Dutch), 
went over in great numbers and settled in Britain, and at 
length gave the name Angl-land, or England to the country. 
The Jutes also went over in considerable numbers, but 
were less numerous than the others. 

These people coalesced with the Saxons ; and their mixed 
language was called the Anglo-Saxon. 

This became the prevailing language, but was modified 
by mixture with the provincial Latin of the Britons. 

This constitutes the basis, or main stock, of the English 
language. 

The Danes afterward invaded England, and subdued a 
large portion of it, but were at last repulsed by King Alfred 
the Great. — Many of them, however, remained in the coun- 
try ; and very many Danish words were incorporated with 
the language. 



xiv INTRODUCTION. 

A second Danish invasion afterward modified the language 
still more. 

Subsequently William the Conqueror, being established 
upon the throne of England, introduced the Norman French 
as the language of the Court, and of all legal tribunals, and 
made great efforts to secure its universal adoption by the 
people. 

In this he did not succeed ; but the French continued to 
be spoken by the higher classes for three hundred years ; 
and, as a result, the French element became a very impor- 
tant one in the national language. 

In the cultivation of the arts and sciences, and by means 
of commercial and other intercotirse, a great multitude of 
words has also been borrowed in modern times from the 
Latin, Greek, Hebrew, French, German, Spanish, Arabic, 
Italian, Welsh, and other languages. 

The language of England previous to the invasion by the 
Romans under Claudius Caesar, A. D. 43, was Celtic; and 
from that stock have sprung the modern Welsh, Irish and 
Scotch, and the recently extinct Cornish. 

During the Roman dominion the language gradually be- 
came Latin. 

From the establishment of the German tribes in the island 
(about A. D. 450) down to the time of Henry III. (about 
A. D. 1250), the language of England was Anglo-Saxon. 

From A. D. 1250 to A. D. 1350 the language is called 
Old English. 

From 1350 to 1550, it is called Middle English. 

Since 1550, the language is called Modern English. 

DIFFICULTY OF THE ENGLISH LAi^GUAGE. 

It is often said that the English is the most difficult of 
the European Languages to learn. This is true only in a 
qualified sense. The actual difficulties are undoubtedly very 
great ; but they are not inherent in the language, and might 
easily be removed. The structure of the English is more 
simple than that of almost any other language in the world ; 
and if extrinsic and needless hindrances were removed, it 



INTRODUCTION, xv 

could be learned in less than half the time required to master 
the Latin, Greek, German, French, Spanish, or Italian. 

The first great obstacle in the way of the student of our 
language is its barbarous orthography^ which is inexpressi- 
bly horrid, and which results from the want of an Alphabet, 

The Roman Alphabet now used is no more adapted to the 
English Language than are the cloihes of a boy often years 
to a full grown man. (See Note 1.) 

The second great obstacle in the student's way has hith- 
erto been the want of a Grammar, — an obstacle which it is 
hoped the present work will measurably overcome. 



NOTE TO TEACHEKS. 

In using this work it is recommended that classes of beginners, 
especially if young, should omit, at first, the Chapters, Sections, aud 
Paragraphs, marked with either an. Asterisk (*) or an Obelisk (-f). 
Older pupils, or those going over the work a second time, may omit 
only those parts marked with the Obelisk ; and still more advanced 
students should not omit any part. 

The teacher, of course, should not feel bound to this order ; but, 
first mastering the work himself, he should exercise a sound discretion 
in view of the capacity of his class. — The Topical Method of recitation 
is earnestly recommended ; and in using the Analytical Index of the 
work (placed at the close of the volume) instead of a set of Questions, 
either of the following plans may be adopted : 

1. The teacher may turn to the Index, and call for the definitions, 
etc., separately. 

2. The pupil, having the Index open before him, may commence 
reciting, and continue until directed to stop. 

3. The Class may be required to memorize that part of the Index 
pertaining to each lesson, and to recite first the Synopsis and then the 
whole of the lesson, without opening the book or being questioned. 

After the memorized lesson has thus been recited, the books should 
be opened, and the Examples and Exercises examined at the discretion 
of the teacher. 



(xvi) 



A COMPLETE 

SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 



OF THE 



EISTGLISH LA:^GUAGE. 



PRELIMINARY DEFINITIONS. 

1. Science is classified knowledge. 

2. Art is skillful practice based on science. 

3. A Word is a sound or a combination of sounds used 
as the sign of an idea. 

4. A Syllable is a word or a part of a word pronounced 
by one impulse of the voice. 

6. Language is the use of words in communicating 
ideas. 

6. Writing is the representation of words by visible 
signs. 

7. A Written Word is the written representation of 
a word. 

8. Philology is the science of language. 

9. Grammar is that part of philology which relates to 
correctness in the formation of words, sentences, verses, and 
stanzas. 

10. Rhetoric is that part of philology which relates to 
continued discourse. 

1 1 . The English Language is the language of the 
English people and their descendants. 

12. English Grammar is the grammar of the Eng- 



lish language." 



(17) 



18 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

13. A Sentence is a collection of words expressing a 
complete assertion. 

14. A Phrase is a collection of words which may form 
an element of a sentence. 

16. The Subject of a Sentence is the part of it ex- 
pressing that of which something is asserted. 

16. The Predicate of a Sentence is the part of it 
expressing that which is asserted. 

17. The Copula of a Sentence is the part of it con- 
necting the subject with the predicate. 

18. The Subject of Discourse is the thing signified 
by the subject of a sentence. 

19. Correct Usage is the use of words in all their 
forms as they were made to be used. 

20. Authorized Usage is a use established by cus- 
tom. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Gold is yellow. 2. Silver is not yellow. 3. In the house. 4. A 
very great number 5. Some men are very wise. 6. This lesson is not 
very long. 7. Many men are foolish. 8, Sometimes a man is ex- 
tremely imprudent. 9. After a long period of very great perplexity. 
10. John writes. 11. Birds sing. 12. Five little boys. 13. Thou art 
a good boy. 14. You are not very diligent. 15. He writes extremely 
well. 

DIVISIONS. 

The Divisions of Grammar are the four parts called 
Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

PART I.— ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography is that part of Grammar which pertains 
to written characters. 

The Divisions of Orthography are Elementary 
Sounds, Letters, Syllables, Accent, Spelling, and Punctuation. 

CHAPTER I.— ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 
An Elementary Sound (or an Element) is one of 
the single sounds used in the formation of words. 

A Letter is a character used to represent an Elementary 

Saund. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. ig 

A Letter Equivalent is a combination of characters 
representing one sound. 

The Number of Elementary Sounds in the Eng- 
lish Language is forty-four. 

The Classes of Elementary Sounds are three, 
Tonics, Subtonics, and Atonies. 

A Tonic Element is a free uninterrupted sound of the 
voice. 

A Subtonic Element is a sound somewhat interrupted 
by the vocal organs. 

An Atonic Element is a whispered articulation. 

A Vowel is a letter representing one of the tonic ele- 
ments. 

A Consonant is a letter representing one of the sub- 
tonic or atonic elements. 

An Alphabet is an arrangement of all the letters of a 
language. 

The Latin Alphabet is that used in the Latin and 
several Modern Languages. 

The English Alphabet is the Latin Alphabet applied 
to the English Language. 

* The Deficiencies of the English Alphabet are 
very great, since it has only tvrenty-six letters to represent 
the forty-four sounds ; and several of them, as c, x, q, etc., 
do not represent any sounds which are not represented by 
other letters. 

* The Phonetic Alphabet is a completed alphabet 
for the English Language, and contains forty-four letters. 

The Vowels of the Common Alphabet are the 
letters a, e, i, o, u, w, and y. 

The Consonants are the other letters of the Alphabet. 

Ambiguous Letters. " W" and " y " at the begin- 
ning of syllables are consonants; "u" sometimes=the con- 
sonant "w"; and "i" and "e" sometimes=the conso- 
nant " y." 

* The Fundamental Idea of Alphabetic Writ- 
ing is to represent each elementary sound of a language in- 



20 



A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 



variably by one letter, and in writing a word to use those 
letters only which represent the sounds of the word. 

* The Writing of the English Language differs 
from this plan almost as widely as possible, — the same letter 
often standing for several different sounds, and the same 
sound being represented by several different letters and let- 
ter equivalents ; and hence it is extremely difficult. 

Correlative Sounds are those made with the organs 
in the same position, one being a Subtonic, and the other an 
Atonic. 

Diphthongs are double sounds, or compound tonic ele- 
ments. 

LiOng Sounds are those requiring most time in pro- 
nunciation. 

Short Sounds are those requiring least time in pro- 
nunciation. 

The Time of a Long Sound usually equals that of 
two short ones. 

* Variation. The length of a sound varies with accent ' 
and emphasis ; and the same sound may be long when com- 
pared with one, but short compared with another. 

* Phonology is the Science of Elementary Sounds. 

* Comparative Phonology is the Science of the in- 
terchanges of Elementary Sounds. 

* Phonography is writing words according to their 
sounds by means of a completed Alphabet. 

* Heterography is the ordinary method of writing 
words. 

* Phonetic Short Hand is an improved system of 
Stenography for rapid writing. 



TABLE OF SOUNDS.— Tonics. 



Long. 
e me 
i mildew 
a mate 
e mellow 
a fare 
a stand 



Short. 


Long. 


STwrt. 


1 Long. ! 


e remit 


a bar 


a pillar 


u pull 1 


i satin 


a all 


a windfall 


CO spool 


a inmate 


lock 


hillock 


u flute 


e mallet 


u burn 


u heartburn 


i mine 


a infare 


e hermit 


e patter 


oi boil 


a inkstand 


o stone 


o millstone 


ou doubt j 




o go 


o indigo. 


1 



Short. 
u wishful 
oo fireproof 
u execute 
i columbine 
oi parboil 
ou waterspout 



OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



21 



SUBTONICS AND ATONICS. 



Svbtonic. 


Atonic 


Svbtonic 


Atxmic. 


Subtonic. 


Atonic. 


b bay 


P pay 


th then 


th thin 


I live 




d den 


t ten 


z zone 


s so 


m may 




3 join 


ch chair 


si fusion 


sh shall 


n no 




g go 


k key 




h hat 


ng sing 




V vail 


f fail 


r run 
r bar 




w will > 

y yet 5 


See Note 3 






EXAMPLES. 







Man, make, path, bathe, chalk, joke, give, feel, seize, measure, having, 
lose, found, sing, far, rise, chair, cast, earth, term, cote, coat, hole, whole, 
bone, stone, tune, coon, rude, rood^ mewed, mood, dew, do, brewed, 
brood, feud, food, iise, usual, year, Spaniard, onion, wince, west, in- 
quest, query, liquefy, quilt, quote, quoin, buoy, royal, persuade, Para- 
guay, folio, genius, suit, suite, sweet, strengths, shrink, shrill, thrusts, 
squash, thrash, schist, school, righteous, cetaceous, chameleon. 

SPECIAL CLASSES OF CONSONANTS. 

The Liiquids are the letters 1, m, n, and r. 

The Aspirate is the letter h. 

The Sibilants are the letters s and z. 

The Ambigues are w and j. 

The Compound Letter is x. 

The Mutes are all the other consonants. 

DIPHTHONGS. 

" I " in " Time " represents a compound sound whose 
elements are represented by " a " in " bar ", and " e " in 
"me". 

" Oi" in " Boil " represents a compound sound whose 
elements are represented by " a " in " fall ", and '* i " in 
"fill". 

*'0u" in "Found" represents a compound sound 
whose elements are represented by " a " in '' bar", and " o " 
in " move ". 



PHONETIC ALPHABET.--(See Note 1.) 



CONSONANTS. 


VOWELS. 




cc. 


— Stf 


TTPIC. 


SCKIPT. 


EXAMPLES. 


TTP 


Long. 


1 Short. 


l.p 


V 


-4 


cT / 


Penn 


26. E e 


(§ ^ 


Hero 


Behave 


2.B 


h 


1. 


m ^ 


Peen 


27.1 1 


cf ^ 


Milford 


Lentil 


3.T 


t^ 


r\ 


cT / 


rime 


28. A a 


C^-d 


Maker 


Mature 


4.D 


d 


-2. 


^ J 


Dime 


29. E e 


--^/^ 


Belfry 


Gospel 


5.C 


C 




^ -«2 


C7hirae 


30. i^ 8 


^.^ 


C<i^reful 


Playfau' 


6. J 


J 


3. 


//■ 


June 


31. 4 a 


Q/a/ 


M<2nage 


Workman 


7.K 


k~ 




^/ 


^ing 


32. A n 


(2/^ 


Barton 


Dunbar 


8.G 


^, 


4. 


^ / 


(?o 


33. A a 


61/61/ 


Falling 


Windfall 


9.F 


f 


■5. 


cT/ 


i^ine 


34.0 


0^ 


Volley 


Parasol 


10. Y 


V 


^ ^ 


Fine 


35. U u 


/T///li/ 


Compulsion 


Impulse 


11.1 


L 




SfJ- 


I%ink 


36. E e 


J^ 


Worthy 


Dilworth 


12. r 


d 


6. 


MS 


JVien 


37.0 


Oiy 


Ccatless 


Turncoat 


13. S 


s^ 


7. 


^ . 


/S'ome 


38.0 


Oo^ 


Oakland 


Whiteoak 


14. Z 


z 


iz^ 


Zion 


39. J a 


fW^ 


F-i^llness 


Grateful 


15. b 


b 


■8. 


// 


Sh^XX 


40. L u 


/Uca/ 


Moving 


Teaspoon 


16. Z 


Z 


^ / 


Fusion 


41. Uu 


m^ 


Lwting 


Resolt^te 


17. H 


h 


X ^ 


J?at 


42.1 i 


^i/ 


Timely 


Pastime 


18.11 


r 


M -t 


jRun 


43.0 () 


^^ 


Boiling 


Parboil 


19. L, 


r 


r^^ 


Bar 


44.0 o 


^ 


Counter 


Discount 


20. L 


1 


^/ 


Zook 










21. M 


m 


c4^-m. 


i/an 










22. N 


n 


c/" -^ 


iVbw 










23. ^ 

24. W 


p 
w 




SiTz,^ 
[•^ent 










25. Y 


y 




f 7 


Fet 











(22) 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG WAGE. 23 

SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 

The Letters of the Common Alphabet represent, 
each, from one to ten sounds, as follows : 

a, 9, as in all, what, dollar, bar, care, can, came, any, vil- 
lage. 

e, 7, as in mercy, sergeant, they, mellow, me, pretty, 
righteous. 

i, 6, as in fir, time, machine, silver, onion, sirrah. 

0, 10, as in nor, worth, borough, accompt, go, whole, 
move, wolf, women, one. 

u, 9, as in bulge, burnish, Russia, full, human, use, bury, 
busy, persuade. 

y, 4, as in Lyme, myrrh, lynx, yes. 
w, 2, as in went, ewer. 

b, 1, as in bend. 

d, 2, as in do, laughed. 

f, 2, as in fall, of 
h, 1, as in hat. 

j, 2, as in joy, hallelujah, 
k, 1, as in king. 

c, 4, as in come, cent, suffice, officiate. 

g, 3, as in gun, gem, rouge, 

1, 1, as in like. 
m, 1, as in make. 

n, 2, as in man, sink. 

p, 2, as in pay, cupboard. 

q, 1, as in queen. 

r, 2, as in ring, bar. 

s, 4, as in so, rose, usual, issue. 

t, 2, as in time, motion. 

V, 1, as in vain. 

z, 3, as in zone, azure, chintz. 

X, 4, as in wax, exist, Xenophon, noxious. 

Rule for x. X commonly=ks ; but in the prefix " ex ", 
when followed in the same word by an accented syllable be- 
ginning with a vowel or silent " h ", x==gz. 



24 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC QBAMMAB 

At the beginning of a word x=z. When followed by 
"i" representing the sound of "y" consonant, xi=ksh. 

B>ule for C. Before a, o, u, or a consonant, c sounds like 
k ; but before e, i, or y it sounds like s, or z, or sh. 

B>llle for g. Befor ea, o, u, or a consonant, g has a palatal 
sound, as in go ; but before e, i, or y, it usually sounds like j. 

Rule for r. Before i. vowel, r is rough; but after a 
vowel it is smooth. 

A DilLgraph. is a combination of two letters to repre- 
sent one sound. 

A Trigraph is a combination of three letters to repre- 
sent one sound. 

A Tetragraph is a combination of four letters to repre- 
sent one sound. 

* CONSONANT DIGRAPHS. 
The Consonant Digraphs represent, each, from one 
to four sounds, as follows : 

th, 3, as in thin, then, Thomas. 

sh, 1, as in shall. 

ch, 3, as in chain, chasm, machine. 

gh, 4, as in laugh, hough, burgh, hiccough. 

ph, 2, as in philosophy, Stephen. 

ng, 2, as in sing, finger. 

sc, 2, as in scene, conscious. 

ck, 1, as in brick. 

rh, 1, as in rhetoric. 

ANOMALOUS COMBINATIONS. 

gl, in a few words, equals '^ ly ", as in " seraglio ". 
gn, in a few words, equals " ny " as in " vignette ". 
wh equals " hw ^\ as in " while ", equal to " hwile ". 
cz equals " ts " as in " Czar ", equal to *' Tsar ". 

RULE FOR "CH". 

In words from the Latin and Greek, " ch " sounds like 
'* k " ; in those from the SpanisTi, like " ch " in ' chain " ; and 
in those from the French, like " ch" in '' machine ". 

* DOUBLE CONSONANTS. 
The Double Consonants, bb, dd, etc., constitute a 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA GE. 25 

series of digraphs, each sounding like its corresponding sij- 
gle consonant. 

* MIXED DIGRAPHS (CONSONANTS AND VOWELS). 

The Mixed Digraphs represent, each, one or two 
sounds, as follows : 
ci, 1, as in special, 
si, 2, as in pension, fusion, 
ti, 2, as in motion, question, 
di, 1, as in soldier. 

zi, 1, as in glazier. ♦ 

ce, 1, as in ocean. 

* VOWEL DIGRAPHS. 

The Vowel Digraphs represent, each, from one to 
seven sounds, as follows : 
aa, 2, as in Aaron, Haarlem, 
ae, 3, as in Caesar, Caesarea, Caernarvon, 
ai, 5, as in laid, fair, plaid, said, captain, 
ao, 1, as in gaol. 

au, 4, as in haul, hautboy, guage, aunt, 
ea, 5, as in break, spread, swear, ream, heart, 
ee, 2, as in meet, been. 

ei, 6, as in conceit, forfeit, veil, heifer, their, eider, 
eo, 7, as in people, leopard, dungeon, yeoman, galleon, 

feodal, Macleod. 

eu, 3, as in neuter, Eunice, hauteur. 

ia, 1, as in diamond. 

ie, 4, as in grief, pitied, friend, lie. 

oa, 2, as in goad, broad. 

oe, 3, as in foe, shoe, felloe. 

oi, 3, as in boil, choir, tortoise. 

00, 3, as in moon, book, door. 

on, 7, as in soup, loud, sought, hough, though, through, 
rough. 

Tia, 2, as in guard, Guadaloupe. 

ue, 3, as in true, guest, Guernsey. 

ui, 2, as in guile, suit. 



26 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

aw, 1, as in law. 

ow, 3, as in now, low, knowledge. 

ew, 2, as in new, sew. 

ay, 2, as in day, says. 

ey, 3, as in they, key, eyre. 

oy, 1, as in boy. 

uy, 2, as in guy, Schuylkill. 

* CONSONANT TRIGRAPHS. 

The Consonant Trigraphs represent, each, one or 
tv^ sounds, as follows : 
sch, 2, as in schism, schist. 
tch, 1, as in caoutchouc, 
rrh, 1, as in myrrh. 

* VOWEL TRIGRAPHS. 

The Vowel Trigraphs represent, each, from one to 
three sounds, as follows : 

eau, 3, as in beau, beauty, Beauchamp. 

eou, 1, as in gorgeous. 

ieu, 1, as in lieu. 

oeu, 1, as in manoeuvre. 

eoi, 1, as in bourgeois. 

uoi^ 1, as in turquois. 

aie, 1, as in slaie. 

aou, 1, as in caoutchouc. 

awe, 1, as in awe. 

iew, 1, as in view. 

aye, 2, as in aye, prayer. 

eye, 1, as in eye. 

eyo, 1, as in eyot. 

nay, 1, as in quay. 

* CONSONANT TETRAGRAPHS. 
tsch, 1, as in Kamtschatka. 

* VOWEL TETRAGRAPHS. 

neue, 1, as in queue. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA GE. 27 

SILENT LETTERS. 

Silent Letters are those representing no sounds of the 
words in which they stand. 

* The use of Silent Letters is very little, as they 
merisly indicate obscurely the former pronunciation of words, 
and, in a few cases, assist in tracing derivations, and in fixing 
the sounds of other letters. 

* The Cost of Silent Letters is very great, amounting 
annually, in the United States, to more than the interest 
on the National Debt. 

The Letters which are never Silent are f, j, q, r 
and V. 

EXAMPLES. 

Debt, doubt, subtle, indict, victuals, benumb, Wednesday, stadtbolder, 
Scheldt, sign, malign, phlegm, a.pothegm, ghost, John, rhyme, caught, 
sought, knit, knight, calm, half, kiln, Lincoln, mnemonic, condemn, 
hymn, psalm, ptyalism, pteropod, coquet, antique, croquet, isle, disme, 
viscount, depot, Guizot, wrench, write, hour, evil, basin, mason, reason, 
spoken, shovel, worked, laugh, strayed, give, programme, have, some, 
day, say, bow, plough, who, corps, corpse, gnat, Xenophon, eclat, billet- 
doux, receipt, phthisic, czar, raspberry, thistle, hasten, rendezvous, 
schism, yacht, drachm. 

* THE FINAL " E ". 

The Final *' e " is sometimes absolutely silent, as in 
" give " ; but usually it is employed to indicate the sound 
of a preceding vowel, as in "hate", or a preceding conso- 
nant, as in " sage ", or a preceding digraph, as in " gnage ", 
or " sheathe ", — thus forming, Avith the preceding letter or 
letters, a digraph or a trigraph. 

* FINAL " E " DIGRAPHS (VOWELS). 

The Final *' e" Vowel Digraphs represent, each, 
from one to three sounds, as follows : 
a — e, 3, as in make, care, village, 
e — e, 2, as in mete, there, 
i — e, 2, as in bite, ravine, 
o — e, 3, as in note, done, prove. 



28 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

u — e, 2, as in tune, use. 
y — e, 1, as in thyme. 

* FINAL '* E " DIGRAPHS (MIXED). 
The Final "e" Mixed Digraphs represent, each, 
one or two sounds, as follows : 
ce, 2, as in lace, suffice, 
ge, 2, as in sage, rouge, 
se, 1, as in surmise 

* PIKAL " E " TRIGRAPHS (VOWELS). 

The Final '' e '' Vowel Trigraphs represent, each, 
one sound, as follows . 
au — e, 1, as in gauge, 
ea — e, 1, as in breathe. 

* FINAL " E " TRIGRAPHS (MIXED). 
The Final " e '' Mixed Trigraphs represent, each, 
one sound, as follows : 
— the, 1, as in sheathe, 
is — e, 1, as in disme. 

* SILENT CONSONANTS. 
Silent Consonants, as well as the Final ''e", are 
sometimes used to indicate the sounds of preceding Vowels 
or Digraphs, and thus they form Digraphs, Trigraphs, or 
Tetragraphs. 

* SILENT CONSONANT DIGRAPHS (MIXED). 
The Silent Consonant Digraphs represent, each, 
one or two sounds, as follows : 
ah, 2, as in hurrah, bah. 
eh, 1, as in eh ! 
al, 1, as in balm, 
ic, 1, as in indict, 
ig, 1, as in sign, 
is, 1, as in island, 
ol, 1, as in holm, 
ug, 1, as in impugn, 
uh, 1, as in buhl. 
eg, 1, as ill impregn. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 29 

* SILENT CONSONANT TRIGRAPHS (MIXED). 
The Silent Consonant Trigraphs represent, each, 

one sound, as follows : 

ach, 1, as in yacht. 
• igh, 1, as in sight. 

oul, 1, as in should. 

* SILENT CONSONANT TETRAGRAPHS (MIXED). 
The Silent Consonant Tetragraphs represent, 
each, two or three sounds, as follows : 
eigh, 2, as in sleight, weight, 
ough, 3, as in ought, though, through. 

* DIFFERENT SIGNS FOR THE SAME SOUND. 

Each Elementary Sound has from one to eighteen 
different signs to represent it, as follows : 

CONSONANTS. 

Sound N^o. 1 has two, as in dip, slipper. 

Sound No. 2 has two, as in but, ebb. 

Sound ISTo. 3 has six, as in set, setting, Thomas, indict, 
worked, mezzotint. 

Sound No. 4 has three, as in do, add, Dhu. 

Sound No. 5 has three, as in chair, latch, Kamtschatka. 

Sound No. 6 has six, as in gem, join, edge, soldier, adju- 
tant, Ledyard. 

Sound No. 7 has eight, as in king, cone, wick, chasm, 
queen, quoin, except, hough. 

Sound No. 8 has three, as in gum, Q^g, ghost. 

Sound No. 9 has four, as in if, staff, laugh, philosophy. 

Sound No. 10 has three, as in vain, of, Stephen. 

Sound No. 11 has one, as in think. 

Sound No. 12 has one, as in then. 

Sound No. 13 has five, as in so, toss, cent, scene, chintz. 

Sound No. 14 has five, as in is, gaze, buzz, hussy, sufiice. 

Sound No. 15 has eight, as in shall, sure, issue, ocean, ma- 
chine, Lucian, motion, pension. 



30 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

Sound IsTo. 16 has five, as in azure, glazier, measure, lesion, 
rouge. 

Sound No. 17 has one, as in hat. 

Sound No. 18 has two, as in run, rhyme. 

Sound No. 19 has three, as in car, whirr, myrrh. 

Sound No. 20 has two, as in look, mill. 

Sound No. 21 has four, as in dim, dimmest, condemn, 
lamb. 

Sound No. 22 has two, as in tin, Lynn. 

Sound N6. 23 has two, as in ring, link. 

Sound No. 24 has four, as in way, persuade, one, choir. 

Sound No. 25 has six, as in yet, million, use, chameleon, 
ewer, hallelujah. 

VOWELS. 

Sound No. 26 has eighteen, as in me, mete, leaf, leave, 
meet, conceit, receive, relief, relieve, people, key, Caesar, 
subpoena, albino, machine, quay, disme, impregn. 

Sound No. 27 has fifteen, as in mill, build, nymph, live, 
sieve, women, busy, been, England, village, surfeit, lettuce, 
cajDtain, carriage, tortoise. 

Sound No. 28 has seventeen, as in cable, mate, plague, 
rain, raise, slaie, gaol, pray, Payne, guaging, guage, great, 
veil, weigh, they, eyot, rendezvous. 

Sound No.' 29 has eleven, as in bell, wealth, belle, friend, 
nonpareil, many, ate, bury, feoffment, says, meant. 

Sound No. 30 has eight, as in care, fair, heir, prayer, eyre, 
faery, bear, brass. 

Sound No. 31 has four, as in man, plaid, comrade, Kaaters- 
kill. 

Sound No. 32 has eight, as in bar, Haarlem, ah, calm, 
sergeant, aunt, heart, Caernarvon. 

Sound No. 33 has eight, as in nor, war, haul, bawl, awe, 
sought, walk, George. 

Sound No. 34 has four, as in not, what, knowledge, lough. 

Sound No. 35 has seven, as in pun, blood, come, Douglas, 
pigeon, cushion, son. 



OF TEE EISFGLISE LANG UA GE. 31 

Sound No. 3(5 has seven, as in learn, worth, first, her, 
myrrh, turkey, nourish. 

Sound No. 37 has two, as in stone, coat. 

Sound No. 38 has fifteen, as in go, cove, doe, coal, oh, 
door, soul, know, owe, though, folks, sew, beau, yeoman, 
hautboy. 

Sound No. 39 has four as in wool, wolf, full, should. 

Sound No. 40 has eight, as in spool, move, soup, rouge, 
shoe, manoeuvre, Schuylkill, Poestenkill, 

Sound No. 41 has fourteen, as in duty, abuse, due, lieu, 
view, suit, feud, foed, beauty, few, impugn, through, you, 
queue. 

Sound No. 42 has eighteen, as in aisle, eider, height, eying, 
eye, aye, bind, mine, indict, lie, sign, night, island, beguiling, 
guile, buy, fly, dye. 

Sound No. 43 has two, as in boil, boy. 

Sound No. 44 has three, as in our, foul, sauerkraut. 

* TOTAL NUMBER. 

The whole Number of Letters and Letter- 
equivalents is two hundred and sixty-four. 

ORGANIC CLASSES OF SOUNDS.-(RANKS 5). 

1. Labials are lip-sounds, — formed in the front part of 
the mouth. 

2. Dentals are tooth-sounds, — formed just back of the 
teeth. 

3. Linguals are tongue-sounds, — formed in the middle 
of the mouth. 

4. Palatals are palate-sounds, — formed in the back part 
of the mouth. 

5, -Gutturals are throat-sounds, — formed in the throat. 



32 



A COMPLETE 8GIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 



* GROUPING OF THE CONSONANTS. 



1st rank. 
Labials. 

P 
b 
f 

V 

m 
w 



2d rank. 
Dentals. 

t 

d 

th 

th 

s 

z 



3d rank. 

Linguals. 
cli 

J 
sh 
zh 

1 

r 



4th rank. 
Palatals. 
k 

g 



ng 



.5th rank. 
Gutturals. 



n r 

* RELATIONS AND CHANGES. 

Related Sounds are those of the same rank. 

Related "Words are those having* a common origin. 

The Consonants of Related Words of the same 
class are usually the same, or slightly changed. 

Consonant Changes are mostly according to simple 
and definite laws. 

Vowel Changes are usually not according to any 
definite laws yet discovered. 

Assimilation is the change of a sound into coincidence 
with a following or preceding sound, as when " adnex " is 
changed into " annex." 

Accommodation is the change of a sound into another 
which will more easily unite with a follow^ing or preceding 
sound, as in "compel" for "conpel''; "sympathy" for 
" synpathy " ; &c. 

!Eduction is the development of a sound from a pre- 
ceding one, as in " drownded " for " drowned ", — in which 
" d " is educed from " n ". 

A Euphonic Change is the change of some element 
of a word to make the sound more agreeable, ol the pro- 
nunciation easier, as when Accommodation, Eduction, or 
Omission occurs. 

An Orthographic Expedient is the use of more than 
one letter to represent one sound, as in "shall", "think", 
" mourn ", " dike ", " physic ", &c 

t PHONETIC LAWS.— 12. (See Note 23.) 
1. Correlative Sounds are most frequently inter- 
changed. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG JJAGE. 33 

2. Related Sounds are very often interchanged. 

3. Sounds of Adjacent Ranks are sometimes inter- 
changed. 

4. Sounds of more Remote Ranks are less fre- 
quently interchanged. 

5. A sound is often amm^7a^ec? or accommoJa^ec? to a fol- 
lowing or preceding one. 

6. A sound is often omitted from a word. 

7. A sound is sometimes inserted in or appended to a word. 

8. Two sounds are sometimes mutually transposed. 

9. A sound is sometimes educed from a preceding one. 
10. A sound is often substituted for tiuo others. 

12. A consonant sound is sometimes changed to a vowel. 
12. A voioel sound is sometimes changed to a consonant. 

t EXAMPLES. 

Baptist, babtist ; cupboard, cubboard ; pill, ball ; purse, bourse (Fr.) ; 
bump, bomb ; life, live ; leaf, leaves ; heave, heft ; aUatlf (Fr.], abla- 
tive ; teufel{<a.), devil; alt (G.), old; tlior (G), door; adtain, attain; 
cloth, clothe ; face, phase; so, sec* (D.) ; clerici (li.), clergy; malice, ma- 
licious ; parish, parage (Fr.) ; cress, grass ; cat, gatto (It.) ; tyke, dog ; 
poke, bag; Jicus (L.), fig; seif (G.), soap ; Joppa, Jaffa; April, Aviil 
(Fr.) ; flow, blow ; table, tafel (G.) ; Rufus, rubus (L.) ; Jiabe (G.), have ; 
gebe (G.), give ; Polly, Molly ; break, wreck ; bear, wear ; tuber, 
tumor; marble, marmor (L.) ; wasp, ms^m (L.) ; vuhius (L.), wound ; 
helve, helm ; author, auteur (Fr.) ; moth, motte (G.) ; fcxihev , pater (L.) ; 
. thing, ding (G.) ; thorn, dorn (G.) ; that, das (G.); out, aus (G.) ; eat, 
iss (G.) ; route, rouse ; pretend, pretense ; adsume, assume ; public, pub- 
licity ; voco (L.), voice ; adnex, annex ; sitteth, sits ; loveth, loves ; peach, 
pecJie (Fr.) ; chief, c7ief{Fi\) ; head, caput (L.); jouvnsil, journal (Fr.) ; 
Mary, Molly ; original, originaire (Fr.) ; yarn, gam (G.) ; way, wege 
(G.) ; get, yet; adpend, append; beard, barbe (Fr.) ; subtain, sustain; 
adfirm, afl&rm ; disfer, differ ; time, tide ; exfuse, effuse ; conpare, com- 
pare ; burnstone, brimstone ; inpel, impel ; sled, sledge ; actio (L.), ac- 
tion ; divide, division ; adligate, alligaie ; adrange, arrange ; shall, soil 
(G.) ; dish, tasse (Fr.) ; brass, brazier ; raise, rear ; iron, eisen (G.) ; con- 
late, collate ; organ, orgel (G.) ; conrect, correct ; carmen (L.), charm; 
make, match; car, chair; break, breach; kirk (Sc), church; dig, 
ditch ; barge, bark ; hedge, hecke (G.) ; surgo (L.), surge ; look, guck 
(G ) ; crack, crash ; Lucius, Luke ; tusk, tush ; skiff, ship ; heart, cor 
(L.) ; hull, keel ; adcord, accord ; adgression, aggression ; prance* 
prank ; glide, slide ; bank, bench ; drink, drench ; shell, hull ; sub- 



34 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

ceed, succeed; war, guerre (^ v.); yellow, gelh (G.); Welsh, Gaulish 5 
yard, ward ; hemi,semi; scale, shell; fisk, fish; plough, plow ; draught, 
draft ; fife, pipe ; pad, foot ; clash, crash ; (Ger. pfeife, 'pfote, San. 
klrad)] ^2a\, segel (An. S.) ; rain, regen (An. S.) ; hotel, liostel (Fr.) ; 
bachelor, bachelder; egoism, egotism; firth, frith; task, tax; tener 
(L.), tender; numerus (L.), number; Uican (An. S.), blink; dreamt, 
dreampt; conduct, conduit ; fruct (L.), fruit; salsus (L.), sauce; avi- 
spices (L.), auspices ; Thomson, Thompson ; Bagster, Baxter ; suhtractio 
(L.), substraction ; Anglo-Saxon; serio-comic ; cheir (G.), reach ; guma 
(An. S.), groom ; coud, could ; perlucid, pellucid : interligent (L.), in- 
telligent ; transscribe, transcribe ; his ternate (L.), biternate ; private- 
cy, privacy. 

CHAPTER II.— LETTERS. 

Capital Letters, called by printers Upper-case Letters, 
are the large letters placed at the begmning of sentences, 

&G. 

Small Letters, called by printers Lower-case Letters? 
are the ordinary letters, and are used wherever capitals 
are not required for some definite reason. 

* The Styles of Letters are very numerous, as 
Roman, Italic, Old English, Antique, Gothic, Full Face, 
Clarendon, Script, and an almost endless variety of Orna- 
mental Letters. 

* The Sizes of Letters in these diiferent styles are 
almost as numerous as the styles, ranging from the large 
Wood-type letters, a foot or more in height, down to the 
almost invisible Brilliant. 

Some of the Comm.on Sizes are 



Great Primer^ 

English, 
Pica, 
Small Pica, 



Nonpareil, 
Agate, 
Pearl, and 



Long Primer, 
Bourgeois, 
Brevier, 
Minion, 

RULES FOR CAPITALS. 

I. The first word of a sentence, of a line of poetry, of a 
formal question or quotation, of a numbered clause, or of a 
resolution or enactment, should begin with a Capital. 

II. Proper and Family names, and their derivatives, all 



OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 35 

titles, important words of headings, appellations of God, 
common nouns personified, generic names, words defined, 
and words of special importance, should each begin with a 
Capital. 

III. The pronoun I, the exclamation O, and, in print, 
headings and title pages, should consist entirely of Capitals. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. The diligence of those students is very commendable. 

2. Deeper, deeper, let us toil 

In the mines of knowledge ; 
Nature's wealth and learning's spoil 
Win from school and college. 

3. Please tell me, then. Were you present at the time or not? 

4. We should remember the precept — "As ye would that men should 
do to you, do ye also to them likewise." 

5. I shall endeavor to prove, 1st, That he could not have been pres- 
ent at the time specified. 2d. That if he had been present, he could 
not have done what he is accused of. 

6. Resolved, That female education is sadly neglected. 

7. Be it enacted ly the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
United States of America in Congress assembled, That Savings Banks 
may be organized in the District of Columbia. 

8. He said that Thomas Jefferson lived in Virginia. 

9. The Augustan age was very remarkable in Roman History. 

10. He saw the Rev. A. L. Stone, D. D., and the Hon. Chas. Sumner 
conversing with Prof. J. Tuckerman, LL. D. 

11. An Improved Grammar of the English Language. 

12. To the Savior, our Lord Jesus Christ, are attributed all the G-har-j a u 
acteristics of the Deity, equally with God the Father, and with the Holy ] r~ ' 
Spirit. '^ ''^ '-- 

13. Terribly destructive has been the reign offing Alcohol. 

14. One of our earliest spring flowers is the Epig5a~fepens. 

15. Capital Letters are head letters ; i. e., letters belonging at the 
head, or beginning. 

16. Our people elect a President once in four years. 

17. He said " I wish, how I wish ! that I could see this work com- 
pleted." 

18. A TREATISE ON 

ENGLISH PUNCTUATION. 

BY JOHN WIT/.SON. 



36 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

EXERCISES. (For Correction.) 

1. the rational study of language is excellent for mental discipline. 

2. what the weak head with strongest bias rules 
is pride, the never- failing vice of fools. 

3. John smith lives in boston, mass. 

4. i ask you again why should this not be done 1 

5. said John "i am ashamed of this fellow's impudence." 

6. i think that, 1st, it is false ; 2nd, it is malicious ; and, 3d, it is most 
ridiculous. 

7- resolved that audacity is a sure indication of depravity. 

8. 'be it enacted by the legislature of icest Virginia that waitman t 
willey, president, and william wagner, secretary of the board of trustees 
of the morgantown female collegiate institute, are hereby empowered to 
sell the lot upon which the said institute is located. 

9. mr. smith says that the sufferings of the parisians during the siege 
of 1870 were very terrible. 

10. general von moltke and prince bismarck have acquired a world 
wide reputation. 

11. the degree of d. d., or doctor of divinity, has been conferred upon 
rev. d. m. graham, of hillsdale, mich. 

12. an account of the hoosac tunnel in massachusetts. 

13. his reference to god and the savior and the holy spirit seemed 
very irreverent. 

14. ah eloquence ! thou wast undone, 
wast from thy native country driven, 
when tyranny eclipsed the sun, 

and blotted out the stars from heaven. 

15. a very common, but also very beautiful, flower is the little poten- 

tilla canadensis. 

16. a catalogue is a list of names, 

17. the commencement exercises at the university were very inter- 
esting. 

18. certainly it is he ; but o how changed since last i saw him! 

19. lippincott's pronouncing gazetteer of the world. 

20. they Said that The book Belonged to benjamin. 

21. In the German Language every Noun begins with a capital Let- 
ter, whatever may be its Signification, or its Position in the Sentence. 

* ITALIC LETTERS. 

Italic Letters are those which stand inclining. 
The Use of italic letters is to distinguish a word or pas- 
sage, for emphasis or otherwise. 

Rules for Italics. Italic letters should be used for 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 37 

words requiring special emphasis, for words borrowed from 
foreign languages, for names of authors annexed to extracts 
from their writings, for the word i^esoZyec? when prefixed to 
a Resolution, and for the enacting clause prefixed to a stat- 
ute or enactment. 

Italics in the Bible indicate words not in the original, 
but supplied by the translators. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Liberty and Union, now and /oreiJer. 

2. The Motto of the United States is '•' E pluribus unum." 

3. " Art is long ; and time is fleeting." — Longfellow. 

4. Resolved, That the so called English Grammars are a great nui- 
sance, 

5. It is enacted liy the General Assemhly as folloics : 

The Salary of the Commissioner of Public Schools shall be two thou- 
sand dollars per annum. 

SMALL CAPITALS, &c. 

Small Capitals, Capitals, and other styles of letters 
are sometimes used for distinction. 

Underscoring, in writing, consists in drawing lines un- 
der words which are to be distinguished. 

One Line under a written word indicates that it should 
be printed in Italics / two lines indicate small capitals ; 
three lines indicate CAPITALS ; and four lines indicate 
ITALIC CAPITALS, or Prnamental J^etters. 

Different Degrees of Emphasis are indicated by 
using successively italics, small capitals, and capitals. 

Other Modes of Distinction are the use of the index 
(21^^), the letters K B., &c. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. He buys, he sells, he steals, he KILLS for gold. 

2. |y° A student should never miss any recitation of his class. 

• 3. N. B. A thing which is worth doing at all, is worth doing well. 

CHAPTER IIL-SYLLABLES. 

Constituents. A Syllable may consist of, 

1st, A vowel sound, as in " I ", " O ", " a-dore ". 



88 A COMPLETE 8GIENTIFIG ORAMMAU 

2nd, One or more consonant sounds, as in " ris-en ", 
" ryth-m ", '' shov-el ", '' a-ble ", " ri-fle ", '• tin-gles ". 

3d, A vowel sound preceded by one or more consonant 
sounds, as in " say ", " play ", " stray " " throw ", &c. 

4tli, A vowel sound followed by one or more consonant 
sounds, as in '' aim ", " ale ", " ears ", " urged ", " arms ", &g. 

5th, A vowel sound both preceded and followed by one 
or more consonant sounds, as in " man ", " cares ", " star ", 
"storms", "strengths", &c. 

A Monosyllable is a word of one syllable, as " come ". 

A Dissyllable is a word of two syllables, as " man-ly ", 
'' un-der ". 

A Trisyllable is a word of three syllables, as " use-ful- 
ness ". 

A Polysyllable is a word of more than three syllables, 
as " dis-u-nit-ing ", " non-con-form-i-ty ", "in-com-pat-i-ble- 
ness ", " re-pre-hen-si-bil-i-ty ", " in-com-pre-hen-si-bil-i-ty ". 

The Greatest ITumber of Syllables in any ordinary 
English word is eight ; but there may he as many as twelve. 

A Compound Word is one which is composed of two 
or more words, as " book-binder ", " pen-wiper ", " pocket- 
book-maker ". 

A Simple Word is one which is not composed of two 
or more words, as "house", "time", "paper", "wisely", 
" penurious ". 

t SYLLABICATION. 

Syllabication is the division of words into syllables. 

The Objects of Syllabication in writing are, 
1st, To indicate the pronunciation of words ; 
2nd, To show the composition, or derivation, of words^ 

The American Method of syllabication is that which 
is designed to indicate pronunciation. 

The English Method is that which is designed to 
show the composition and derivation of words. 

RULES FOR THE AMERICAIT METHOD.-ll. 

1. Separate Compound Words into their simple compo- 
nents. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 39 

2. Separate Prefixes, Suffixes, and Inflectional Endings, 
from their Radicals, and from each other. 

3. Divide bi-accentual words so as to show the difference 
in pronunciation, as " re-bel' " '' reb'-el " ; " mi-nute' ", min'- 
ute " ; &G. 

4. When a single consonant occurs between two vowels, 
join it with the second, if the 1st vowel is long ; otherwise 
join it with the first, as '* de'-mon ", " Dem'-ing " ; &c. 

5. When a mute followed by a liquid occurs between two 
vowels, join both consonants to the following vowel, if the 
previous vowel is long ; otherwise join the mute to the pre- 
vious vowel, and the liquid to the following vowel, as "re- 
flow' " " ref '-luence " ; " de-preciate ", " dep-recate " ; <fec. 

6. When any two consonants, except a mute followed by 
a liquid, occur between two vowels, separate the consonants, 
as " mag-pie ''; " con-template "; Sdc. 

7. When three or more consonants occur between two 
vowels, join the first consonant with the previous vowel, and 
the others with the following one, as " in-troduce " ; " un- 
grammatic " ; etc. 

8. When two vowel sounds come together, separate them, 
as " di-ameter " ; " re-entrant " ; &c. 

9. Treat digraphs, trigraphs, and tetragraphs as single 
letters, as "bish-op " ; " ma-chine " ; '' beau-ty " ; " Her- 
schel " ; " Kam-tschat-ka " ; &c. 

10. When silent letters occur, neglect them in dividing ; 
and if they come between syllables, join them to the 
former syllable, as " calm-ness " ; " John-son " ; " asth-ma " ; 
&c. 

11. In dividing a word at the end of a line adopt the 
English method ; and never divide a syllable ; nor leave a 
syllable of only one or two letters standing alone. 

EULES FOR THE ENGLISH METH0D.-3. 

1. Separate the original elements of the word without 
regard to pronunciation, as " a-pathy " ; " poly-gamy " ; astro- 
nomy"; &c. 

2. When a consonant, or consonant digraph or trigraph, oc- 



40 ^4 COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

curs between vowels, join it to the following vowel ; as " pre- 
face " ; " pro-phet " ; " a-na-to-my " ; " ma-the-ma-tics " ; &c. 
3. In other respects, divide according to the American 
Method. 

EXERCISES 

Human, humming, realize, motion, neuter, instrumental, dental, 
remain, Remington, usual, hypothesis, belligerent, phalanx, anxious, 
retiring, usefulness, bookmaker, razorseller, premonition, premises, 
manliness, usefulness. 

CHAPTER IV — ACCENT. 

The Ultimate is the last syllable of a word. 

The Penult is the last but one. 

The Antepenult is the last but two. 

Accent is the stress of voice upon the principal syllable 
of a word, as in "grand'ly ". 

The Elements of Accent are time and force. 

Polysyllables sometimes have two or three accents. 

The Primary Accent is the strongest one. 

The Secondary Accent is the one next to the prim- 
ary in strength. 

The Tertiary Accent is the weakest one. 

The Character called the Acute Accent ( ' ) is 
used to mark the accented syllables of a word, as "great'- 
ness ". 

The Heavy Acute Accent ( ' ) marks the primary 
accent. 

The Light Acute Accent ( ' ) marks the secondary 
and tertiary accents, as " spec'-u-la'tion " ; " in-com'-pre-hen- 
si-birity ". 

Bi-accentual Words are those in which different 
meanings are distinguished by different accents. 

t RULES FOR ACCENT.-17. 

1. All monosyllables are accented when separately ut- 
tered; but some, as " the ", " my '', " m ", " o/", <fcc., lose the 
accent when used with other words. 

2. Inflected forms and Derivatives of monosyllables have 
the accent on the radical syllable. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA GE. 41 

3. Primitives of more than one syllable usually have the 
•accent on the radical syllable. 

4. Inflected forms and derivatives of words of more than 
one syllable usually accent the same syllable as their prim- 
itives. 

5. Words borrowed from foreign languages, until they 
become naturalized, preserve their original accent, — those 
from the French accenting the ultimate, — those from the 
Latin the penult or antepenult, — and those from the Greek 
one of the last three syllables. 

6. Naturalized words often move the accent back one or 
two syllables. 

7. Ease of pronunciation sometimes makes exceptions to 
Rules 3 and 4. 

8. A pair of bi-accentual words being a noun and a verb, 
the noun has the prior accent. Being an adjective and a 
verb, the adjective has the prior accent. Being a noun and 
an adjective, the noun has the prior accent. 

9. Similar contrasted words accent syllables which differ. 

10. Words ending in -cracy, -ferous, -fluent^ -fluous^ 
—gonal,-go.ny, -gr cipher ^-grapliy^-loger^ -logist^ —logy, -loquy, 
macliy, -mathy, —meter, -metrij, —nomy, —parous, -pathy, 
-phony, —scopy, —strophe, —tomy, -trophy, —vomoiis, and 
—vorous, accent the antepenult. 

11. Words of more than two syllables ending in -cate, 
-date, -gate, —fy, —tude, and —ty preceded by a vowel, ac- 
cent the antepenult. 

12. Words having the sound of sh, zh, or y, before their 
last vowel, except those in which ch sounds like sh, accent 
the penult. 

13. Words ending in ie or ies usually accent the penult. 

14. Words ending in er-al, e-an, and e-iim (except ideal), 
accent the antepenult. 

15. Dissyllabic adjectives ending in ose accent the ulti- 
mate. 

16. Adjectives of more than two syllables ending in ose 
accent the antepenult. 



42 A COMPLETE SGIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 

17. Exceptions to these rules must be learned from ob- 
servation, and the Dictionary. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Man, manly, manfully, unmanly, write, writing, writer, written, 
the, the man, the great man, my, my own, my own house, of, of coftrse, 
by, by all means, mistake, undertake, mistaking, mistakenly, overlook, 
repose, contain, exclaim, human, jewel, captive. 

2. Deficient, inveterate, deficiently, deficiency, inveteracy, inveterate- 
pess, reposing, reposed, contains, contained, containing, containable, 
exclaiming, exclamation, humanize, humanizing, humanity, inhuman. 

3. Sanguine, sanguinely, sanguineness, sanguinary, sanguify, sangui- 
fier, sanguinariness, sanguiferous, sanguifluous, sanguineous, sangui- 
suge, consanguined, consanguinity, chapeau, politique, politic, Socrates, 
abdomen, museum, amazon. 

4. Orator, convert, contract, perfect, protest, perfume, proceeds, 
compact, minute, gallant, attribute, misconduct, overthrow, intervene, 
supervene, amputation, imputation, biennial, triennial, exercise, exor- 
cise, prophet, profit, donor, donee. 

5. Aristocracy, auriferous, confluent, superfluous, diagonal, cosmog- 
ony, biographer, selenography, astrologer, geologist, zoology, colloquy, 
logomachy, chrestomathy, pyrometer, altimetry, economy, oviparous, 
sympathy, symphony, aeroscopy, apostrophe, anatomy, hypertrophy, 
ignivomous, omnivorous. 

6. Abdicate, accommodate, investigate, magnify, fortitude, com- 
plicity, ambiguity, commotion, relation, suspicion, affusion, celestial, 
christian, Indian, machine, chicane, organic, dietetic, mechanics, pneu- 
matics, inharmonic. 

7. Laryngeal, Herculean, periosteum, petroleum, morose, verbose, 
comatose, operose, tuberose, pertinacious, lyceum, incongruity, illogi- 
cal, immaculate, grajninivorous, lumeniferous, lanigerous. 

CHAPTER v.— SPELLING. 

General Rules for the spelling of all words are impos- 
sible, in the present condition of the alphabet. 

Individual "Words, in most cases, must be learned by 
observation in reading, and by the careful and persevering 
use of the Spelling Book and Dictionary. 

Special Rules for spelling certain classes of words 
have been given, and are serviceable, when thoroughly 
learned together with their exceptions. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG JJAGE. 43 

* KTTLES FOR SPELLING.-14. 

1. Double the /* and I at the end of a monosyllable, 
after a single vowel, except in clef^ if^ and of. 

2. Double the s in the same case, except in gas, as, has, 
was, yes, his, is, us, thus and this. 

3. Double the b in abb and ebb ; the d in add, odd and 
rudd ; the g in egg and bigg (a kind of barley) ; the nin inn / 
the r in err, parr, birr, and shirr j the t in mitt, smitt, and 
butt j and the z in fizz, fuzz, buzz. 

4. Add k to c following a vowel, at the end of a mon- 
osyllable, except in lac, sac, ploc, and soc (a law term) ; also 
in words of more than one syllable when the c is preceded 
by any other vowel than i or ia, except in almanac, sandarac, 
m,anioc, and havoc. 

5. Add k to c at the end of a word before adding a ter- 
mination beginning with e, i, or y. 

6. Double a final consonant preceded by a single vowel 
(except h or x) of a word accented on the last syllable, before 
adding a termination beginning with a vowel, except in the 
derivatives of gas (aside from gassing and gassy), and those 
words in which the termination throws back the accent of 
the primitive. 

7. Drop one/* from pontiff before adding a termination; 
and one I from a word ending in //, before adding a termin- 
ation beginning with I. In other like cases retain the double 
consonant. 

8. Drop a final silent e preceded by a different vowel, 
before adding a termination beginning wdth a consonant. 
Also drop final e in forming wholly and loisdom, and be- 
fore a termination beginning with a vowel, — except in 
hoeing, toeing, shoeing, and the present participles of dye, 
singe, springe and tinge, — and also in words whose termin- 
ations beginning with a or o follow ce or ge. 

9. Change final ie to y before adding ing. 

10. Change y preceded by a consonant into i before 
adding a termination not beginning with i, except in ad- 
jectives of one syllable, and cases where shii^ is added, and 



44 A COMPLETE 8GIENTIF1G GRAMMAR 

also in babyhood., ladykin, and wiiere y is changed to e in 
beauteous, duteoios, bounteous and plenteous. 

11. Retain a final y preceded by a vowel, in adding a 
termination, except in daily ^laid^ paid ^ said,saith^ slain and 
staid. 

12. Drop a final e of words ending with a vowel sound, 
before a termination beginning with e. 

13. Retain a final double consonant, when a prefix is 
joined to a word, except in until and annul. 

14. In compound words, retain all the letters of the 
simple words composing them, except in some compounds 
of all, toell, mass, — those words in which full is the sec- 
ond part, and chilblain, fulfill, ^lamesahe, 7iunishull^ pastime, 
standish, and wherever. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Cliff, beef, snuff, leaf, muff, fill, roll, soil. 

2. Mess, pass, loss, hiss, fuss, house, news, keys, gross. 

4. Black, rock, stick, duck, pinchbeck, public, maniac, 

5. Trafficker, talcky, zincky, publication, catholicize. 

6. Abetting, committed, briefer, beginner, reveling, runner, gaseous, 
traveler, reference. 

7. Pontifical, hopefully, skillful, dullness, dully, oddly. 

8. i)uly, argument, awful, living, widest, widely, lateness, dyeing, dy- 
ing, singing, singeing, courageous, mortgageor, noticeable. 

9. Lying, tying, hying, vying, underlying. 

10. Beautiful, heartily, heaviness, denying, shyness, spryly, ladyship, 
suretyship, carrier, deadlier. 

11. Saying, playful, surveyor, conveyance, buying. 

12. Truer, shoer, suer, truest, owed, freer, freest, agreed. 

13. Foretell, surpass, suppress, superadd, rebuff. 

14. Saveall, widemouthed, wellmade, al wise, alone, welcome, welfare, 
Christmas, hopeful, wishful, willful, fullorbed. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Cleff, iff, thee ende off liffe, att eb tyd, lett hymn ad thoas nombres, 
staf, clif, halff, wel, ful, wheel, shal, shel, smal, rol, wooll, del, feell, 
steall, ruff, stuff, cuf, muf. 

2. Gass, yess, thus, thiss, uss, fus, furse, hiss, pass, las, mas, flos, bos, 
moss, kis, bles. 

3. Ab, slabb, tubb, hub, eb, knobb, ad, od, sod, rodd, mudd, rud, eg, 
the big iss rype, a bigg roum, ane oald in, er, bir, shir, the stok iz ate 



OF THE ENQLISH LANG UAGE. 45 

parr, hee caut the par inn a nett, mit, tha niarcL thee sheapp withe smit, 
wee hadd a but of wein, al butt one, buz, fiz, fuz, let themm com, dimra, 
dumm. 

4. Blac, thic, stak, breack, loock, shellack, a sac of corn, the flevvid is 
contaned inn a litle sack, plock, a woolen soc, almanack, sandarack, 
maniock, havock, brie, trie, cambrick, relick, maniack, alembick, wic, 
pic, weeck, loc. 

5. Trafficer, rollicing, rusticate, rusticity, mimicer. 

6. Beginning, beginer, spiner, thiner, compeling, exceling, entraping, 
surpassing, expressing, omiting, recoiling, excelent, compelative, dim- 
mer, tiner, gasy, gasing, gasseous, gassometer, gassify, quiting, ac- 
quited, awaitted, outwitted, caballisra, caballist, preferrence, reference, 
deferrence, remitance, remitting, omited, omiting, omitt. 

7. Pontif, pontiflQcal, fully, dulness, fulnes, ading, odness, ering, fizz- 
ing, buzing, ebing. 

8. Duely, dubill, hohandle, hoing, shostring, shoemaker, wholey, 
wisedom, likly, finly, suing, toing, dyeing, singeing, springeing, tinge- 
ing, dying, singing, springing, dinging, pacer, racer, peacable, notica- 
ble, forceible, useable, useage,managable,manageing, mortgagor, mort- 
gageing. 

9. Lieing, dicing, vieing, hying, reliing. 

10. Complyaut, relyant, espying, espyed, relyed, complyed, denied, 
deniing, denyal, tryal, sprier, dryed, drier, supplyed, suppliing, babi- 
hood, ladiship, suretiship, ladikin, beautyous, beautyful, dutyous, dute- 
ful, bountyous, bounteful, plentious, plenteful, wrier, flying. 

11. Dayly, layed, sayed, sayeth, slayn, stayd sais, buys, conveies, de- 
stroies, annoied, dismaied. 

12. Awful, suer, pursueer, enduer, hoeed, sueed, oweed, freeer, seeer, 
freeest, seeest, agreeed, agreable, oweing, awed, argueed, plagueed. 

13. Befal, recall, befel, enthral, enrol, unrol, readd, superad, repas, 
expres, suppres, redres, rebuf. 

14. Harebell, farewel, herin, therin, therby, forordain, allmost, all- 
lone, Wellcome, welborn, welworn, allmighty, painfull, banefull, carefull, 
wasteful, usefull, chillblain, fullfil, name'ssake, numbskul, passtime, 
standdish, whereever, thereunder, morover. 

tPRINCIPLES OF ABBREVIATION. 

Abbreviation is the shortening of words by omitting 
parts of them. 

The Object of Abbreviation is to save time and 
space in writing and printing. 

A Good Abbreviation is one which is short and sug- 
gestive of the whole word* 



46 A COMPLETE 8CIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 

METHODS OF ABBEEVIATI0N.-15. 

1. The first syllable is written, as Ans., Pres., Jan., &c. 

2. The first syllable and the first letter of the next sylla- 
ble, as Lond., Benj. 

3. The first letter is written, as A., p., O., &c. 

4. The first and last letters are written, as Js. Yd., Yr., 
&c. 

5. The first, and a medial letter are written, as Cs., Eb., 

&Q. 

6. The first two and the last letters are written, as Amt., 
Clk., &c. 

7. The first and the last two letters are written, as Cts., 
Yds., &C,. 

8. Of a compound word, the first and last letters of one 
part, and the first or last letter of the other part, as Ldp., 
&c. 

9. Of a compound name or title, the first letter of each 
part is written, as S. C, U. C, L. I., &c. 

10. Of a phrase used as a name or title, the first letter of 
each principal word is written, as M. C, K. G. C, <fcc. 

11. The abbreviations of Latin equivalents are used, as 

A. A. S., &c. 

12. The abbreviations of French equivalents are used, as 
No., Messrs., &g. 

13. A letter is doubled for the plural, as pp., MSS., LL. D., 
<fcc. 

14. Irregular abbreviations are used, as Jno., bbl., viz., 
ss., <fcc. 

15. Arbitrary Signs are used, as &, $, 3 , 1 > ° > 'j ", +j 

— , X, V' ^^' 

CLASSES OF WORDS ABBREVIATED.-16. 

1. Titles of Honor, as A. M., D.D., LL. D., Ph. D., H. 

B. M., &c. 

2. Titles of Office, as Capt., Gov., Gen., A. A. G., Abp., 
<fcc. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 47 

3. Geographical names, as AL, N". Y., W. Ya., U. S., 
Can., &c. 

4. Names of Months and Days, as Jan., Dec, Ap.,Tues., 
Wed., &c. 

5. lN"ames of Persons, as Chas.,'Wm., Thos., Benj., &g. 

6. Names of Weights, Measures, Moneys, &c., as lb., oz., 
rd., ft., £., &c. 

7. Names of Societies, as A. B. S., H. M. S., R. S. L., &c. 

8. Names of Religious Denominations, as Bap., Meth,, 
Pres., <fcc. 

9. Names of Books of the Bible, as Gen., Ex., Ps., Mat. 
Rom., &Q. 

10. Theological Terms, as Sab., Ser., Ord., Com., Rub., 

&G. 

11. Legal Terms, as Cod. Stat., L., Q. B., Nol. pros., &c., 
1:^. Medical Terms, R., Gtt., Pulv., Scil, Cub., iss., &c. 

13. Nautical Terms, as Naut., Nav., Bk., Sch., Lat., Lon., 

&G. 

14. Commercial Terms, as @, Acct., Amt., Blk., Co., Cr., 
Dr., &Q,. 

15. Technical Terms pertaining to all the Arts and 
Trades. 

* THE WORD MISTERS. 

The Word Misters is a legitimate and convenient 
word, and its proper abbreviation is 3Is. The use of this 
instead of the awkward French equivalent Messrs. (Mes- 
sieurs) would save a great amount of time and trouble. 

The Abbreviation of Mistresses is Mrss. 

A Full List of Abbreviations is given in Webster's 
Unabridged Dictionary. 

* CHAPTER VI-PUNCTTJATION. 

[To be studied after Chap. I. of the Syntax.] 

Punctuation is the insertion in a literary composition 
of various marks called points. 

The Use of Punctuation is to make the meaning 
more evident. 

The Pauses in Reading are not clearly indicated by 



48 A COMPLETE 8GIENTIFIG OBAMMAR 

the Points, since they are much more numerous than the 
Points, and often occur at different places. 

The Classes of the Points are three, — Sentence Points, 
Word Points, and Miscellaneous Points. 

SENTENCE POINTS. 
The Sentence Points are the Period (.), Colon (:), 
Semicolon ( ; ), Comma ( , ), Interrogation Point ( ?), Exclama- 
tion Point ( ! ), Curves ( ), Brackets [ ], Dash ( — ), Quotation 

Marks ( " " ), and Marks of Ellipsis (***,.., , ), 

&c. 

RULES FOR THE PERI0D.-4. 

1. Place the Period at the end of a positive sentence, and 
after a disconnected w^ord or phrase. 

2. Place the Period after an abbreviation, except @, arbi- 
trary signs, and those in which a numeral represents the 
first part of the word, as 4th, &c. 

3. Place a period after a figure or letter used in number- 
ing chapters, &g. 

4. The period after an abbreviation may be followed by 
any other point. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Audacity always indicates a corrupt mind. 
In the house. Latin Grammar. Geography. 

2. Chas. and Wm. ; Mass. ; A. D. ; March 10th; 7 @ 8 ; &c. 
4. Flemington, Taylor Co., W, Va., Jan. 1st, 1879. 

RULES FOR THE EXCLAMATION P0INT.-4. 

1. Place the Exclamation Point at the end of an Exclama- 
tory Sentence or Phrase, or a word indicating emotion. 

2. Place the Exclamation Point after an Interjection, un- 
less it is closely connected with other words. 

3. Place the Exclamation Point after any remarkable ex- 
pression or statement. 

4. To denote intensity of emotion, the Exclamation Point 
may be sometimes doubled or tripled. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. How great care is required in order to write correctly ! 
What a wonderful art ! Happy man ! Indeed ! 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 49 

2. Hurrah ! the victory is ours, but alas ! how dearly bought ! 
when will men learn wisdom ! Woe to the conquered ! 

3. The Ethiopians had developed a very remarkable civilization many 
ages previous to that of the Assyrians ! 

In America were cities and art and literature as long ago as the 
times of Hesiod and Homer ! 

4. Glorious news ! We have carried the day ! ! Our candidate is 
elected by an overwhelming majority ! ! ! 

RULES FOR THE INTERROGATION POINT -2. 

1. Place the Interrogation Point at the end of an Inter- 
rogative Sentence, either entire or contracted, except when 
it is indirectly quoted. 

2. The Interrogation Point inclosed in curves or brackets 
may be placed after a doubtful or questionable statement. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Is it not evident that the world is improving 7 — Not to yourmindl 
No evidence adduced % None ? 

He said "Why do you not go ? " — He asked why we did not go. 

2. Recent discoveries prove that the so-called " fixed stars " are 
moving with immense velocities in all directions (1). 

RULES FOR THE C0L0N.-2. 

1. Use the Colon to separate a Prospective Sentence 
from its Consequent. 

2. Use the Colon to separate the number of a Chapter 
from that of a Yerse quoted from the Bible. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. My advice is this : Never do that which you know to be wrong. 
Please send me the following articles : 

One Smith's New Patent Mowing Machine, 
Two Heavy Steel Prairie Plows, and 
One Improved Corn-Sheller. 

2. The text of the preacher was John 14 : 3. 

RULES FOR THE SEMICOLON. -3. 

1. Use the Semicolon to separate the members of a 
Normal Loose Sentence, if not inverted ; but when the 
Loose Sentence is used as a member of a Compact or Close 
Sentence, omit the point. 



50 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GBAMMAB. 

2. Use the Semicolon to separate the principal members 
of a double or Triple Compact Sentence. 

3. Use the Semicolon to separate distinct groups of 
words used as examples. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. John has gone to school ; and Thomas has gone to Market. If 
one has an excess of corn and another has an excess of beef, they may 
make an exchange profitable to both. 

2. Because when he was at College, he wasted his time ; therefore 
when a good situation was offered to him, he was not able to fill it. 

3. The sounds of p and b are often exchanged, as poll, boll ; pat, 
bat ; (fcc. 

RULES FOR THE C0MMA.-9. 

1. Use the Comma to separate the members of a Single 
Compact Sentence, except when the correlatives are " as " 
and " as ", or " so " and " as ". 

2. Use the Comma to separate the members of a Loose 
Sentence, if reduced or inverted ; but if the connective is 
" or ", omit the comma. 

3. Use the Comma to separate the members of a Close 
Sentence when it is Complex, Complicate, or Reversed, — 
when the second member is parenthetic or independent, — ■ 
or when the Relative is much separated from its Antece- 
dent. 

4. Use the Comma to separate the members of a Com- 
pound Element, when the Conjunction is omitted. 

5. Use the Comma with the Conjunction before the last 
member of a series. 

6. Use the Comma to separate distinct elements, when 
it will prevent ambiguity. 

7. Use the Comma to isolate a Rational Exclamation. 

8. Use the Comma to isolate an incidental passage. 

9. Use the Comma to isolate a transposed passage, when 
it will prevent ambiguity. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. When one has nothing to say, then he should say nothing. 

2. Modesty is one of the chief ornaments of youth, an<i has /^ver beep 
esteemed a presage of rising merit. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA GE. 51 

The man has made, and he sees it now, a great mistake, 

3. He had just sold the house, which was very unfortunate for him. 
Ms. Smith and Jones, who were the principal owners, refused 

their consent. 

The work was done by Brown and Eeeves, who are good me- 
chanics. 

Who ventures to invade my rights, he does it at his peril. 

A man of most excellent literary judgment, who has read the 
work, pronounces it remarkably good. 

4. Aright, aleft, above, below, he whirled the rapid sword. 

The work is accomplished in a carefui, thorough, scholarly manfler. 

5. Industry, honesty, and temperance are essential to happiness. 

6. The house stands beyond the river, under the hill, near the road. 
He promised to visit the place, to ascertain the facts, and to report 

at once. 

She draws, paints, sings, and plays admirably. 

7. I think, John, that it Avill rain to-morrow. 
Well, that will not be unfavorable to the farmers. 

8. The General, with commendable foresight, retired across the river. 

9. To the wise and good, old age presents a scene of tranquil enjoy- 
ment. 

RULES FOR THE CURVES.-3. 

1. Use the Curves to include a disconnected remark by the 
Author. 

2. Use tlie Curves to include a point, letter, or figure, used 
for some special purpose. 

3. If a point is required where the Parenthesis occurs, 
place it after the second Curve, — unless the Parenthesis is a 
complete sentence or is exclamatory or interrogative. In 
that case place the point before the first Curve. (A supplied 
ellipsis included in curves is not a Parenthesis ; and not 
subject to this Rule.) 

EXAMPLES. 

1. If you can do it (and I have no doubt that you can), please give 
me some information on this subject. 

2. This remark was made, it is said, by the Hon. ("?) John Smith. 

3. If this plan is practicable, (and why is it not 1) we ought to adopt it. 
In the mean time the Indians, (miserable wretches I) or some other 

foes, had burned his house. 



52 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

RULES FOR THE BRACKETS.— 2. 

1. Use the Brackets to inclose something introduced by 
an Editor or Copyist, or which may be omitted, or which 
is removed from its proper place. 

2. The Brackets may be used by an Author to inclose in- 
cidental matter of some special kind, as, in a Dictionary, the 
Etymologies, &g. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Art is long [i. e. we have much to do] ; and time is fleeting. 

[Zion enjoys her Monarch's love, 

Secure against a threatening hour ; 
Nor can her firm foundations move. 

Built on his truth, and armed with power,] 

[and weary]. 
Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak 

2. Rational [L. rationalis], relating to reason. 

RULES FOR THE DASH.-7. 

1. Use the Dash as a sign of Ellipsis where a sentence is 
commenced but not finished, or where the beginning of a 
sentence is omitted. 

2. In a case of Anacoluthon, place the Dash after the un- 
finished part. 

3. Use Dashes instead of the Curves when the Parenthe- 
sis has some slight connection, with the sentence in which it 
is placed. 

4. When a Parenthesis occurs within a Parenthesis, use 
Dashes instead of a second pair of Curves. 

5. Use the Dash to mark a significant pause, — either alone 
or after some other point. 

6. Use the Dash to show the beginning of a new Para- 
graph upon the same line with preceding words. 

7. Use the Dash to separate the number from the head- 
ing of a chapter; to separate a side heading from the Para- 
graph ; and to separate the name of an Author or Authority 
from a passage quoted or copied, when placed on the same 
line. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA GE. 53 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Horror burst the bands of sleep ; but my feelings words are 

too weak, too powerless to express them. 

2. That patriotism which, catching its inspiration from the immortal 
God, and leaving at an immeasurable distance below all lesser, grovel- 
ling, personal interests and feelings, animates and prompts to deeds of 
self-sacrifice, of valor, of devotion, and of death itself, — that is public 
virtue ; that is the noblest, the sublimest of all public virtues. 

3. In youth — that is to say somewhere between the period of child- 
hood and manhood — there is commonly a striking development of sen- 
sibility and imagination. 

4. When I went to vote (for I always vote — though sometimes with 
reluctance — on election day), I met him. 

5. He said ; then full before their sight 
Produced the beast ; and lo ! — 'twas white. 

I pause for a rej)ly. — None 1 Then none have I offended. 
And life's piano now for me hath lost its sweetest tones, sir, 
Since my Matilda Brown became — some fellow's Mrs. Jones, sir. 

6. The door then closed. — Seven years afterwards I met him again in 
the streets of Paris. 

7. Chapter 8.— Coral IsLAXDS. Lesson 10. — Volcanoes. 
Something New. — Mr. John Smith has recently invented a new fish- 
hook, which he has patented. 

"Heaven's fire is around thee to blast and to burn." — Campbell. 

RULES FOR THE aUOTATION MARKS.-5. 

1. Place Double Inverted Commas before, and double 
Apostrophes after, a direct quotation. 

2. If other words intervene between the parts of a quo- 
tation, then mark each part separately. 

3. If a quotation contains a quotation, mark that which is 
contained with single points, and if still another is contained 
within this last, mark it with double points. 

4. Omit the Quotation Marks in case of an indirect quo- 
tation ; of a quotation from another language and printed in 
italics ; and of numerous short extracts used as examples in 
text books ; but insert them with single words used merely 
as examples. 

5. When successive paragraphs are quoted, place the In- 
verted Commas before each ; but the Apostrophes after the 
last only. 



54 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

EXAMPLES. 

1. " Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight." 

2. " Suspicion," said'the man, " is one of the meanest of vices." 

3. When treating of Christian Orators, Maury asks the following 
apposite questions : " What is this you call eloquence 1 Is it the 
wretched trade of imitating that criminal, mentioned by a poet in his 
satires, who balanced his crimes before his judges with antitheses 1 Is 
it the puerile secret of forming jejune quibbles; of rounding periods; 
of tormenting one's self by tedious studies, in order to reduce sacred 
instruction into a vain amusement 1 " 

4. Socrates said that he believed in the immortality of the soul. 
Such little words as " and " and " the " and " by " should be spo- 
ken distinctly. 

The student should take Nil desperandum for his motto, 

5. " Don't choose a piece too big for you, or too long for your au- 
dience, 

" Learn the Author's name ; when, why, where, to whom, and 
under what circumstances he spoke, 

" Read j'our selection very carefully, at least three times through, 
before you begin to commit it to memory." 

RULES FOR THE MARKS OF ELLIPSIS.-4. 

1. A Blank space may be used to show the omission of a 
part of a line of poetry; and in Legal Forms, to show the 
omission of any number of words or lines. 

2. The Long Dash may be used to show the omission of a 
part of a name ; of a whole name ; of a number ; of a sum 
of money expressed by figures ; &c. 

3. Stars, Dots, or Hyphens, may be used to show the 
omission of some letters of a name ; of some words of a sen- 
tence ; of some sentences of a paragraph ; or of an indefinite 
portion of a book. 

4. The Double Period or the Dash should be used to in- 
dicate any common Ellipsis of one or more words from a 
sentence. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. " Down, down they go ; 
« The Gael above ; Fitz James below." 

2. No . Mr. C' 's B 1. 

I promise to pay to or order Dollars. 

3. Ms. J * * n S * * * h, T . . . . s J . . . s, and W m M e. 



OF I HE ENGLISH LANG UA GE. 55 

There are but few who know how to be friends to the dead. ***** 
***** The name of our friends, their glory, their family, have still 
claims upon our affection which it would be guilt not to feel. 

If the great have no other glory than that of their ancestors,. . . . 
their birth dishonors them, even in the estimation of the world. 

4. He is .. in the house. He sent .. me the book. Where did you 
see him ? ,. In the house. Lay .. aside the books. Virtue is always 
advantageous ; vice . . never. 

WORD POINTS. 

The "Word Points are the Accents ( " ' '' " ), the Hy- 
phea (-), the Apostrophe ( ' ), the Macron ( ~ ), the Breve 
( ^), the Diaeresis ( " ), the Cedilla ( , ), the Tilde ( ~ ), and 
the Dot ( • ). 

The Acute Accent ( ' ) is used to mark the accented 
syllable of a word ; and, in Eeading Books, to indicate the 
Upward Inflection. 

The Grave Accent ( ^) is used sometimes to show that 
a final " ecV is to be pronounced as a distinct syllable. In 
Reading Books it marks the Downward Inflection. 

The Circumflex Accent ( "" ) properly denotes a con- 
traction, and is used in Reading Books to mark the Com- 
pound Inflection. It is also used as a Diacritical Mark over 
the letters a, e, o, and it^ to indicate particular sounds. 

The Double Acute Accent ( ) is sometimes used to 
mark the primary accent in a long word, and is sometimes 
used as a Diacritical Mark to the letters c, ?, and n. 

The Hyphen ( - ) is used to separate the syllables of a 
word, or the members of a compound word, and it is placed 
at the end of a line where a word is divided. 

The Apostrophe ( ' ) is used to show the omission of 
one or more letters. 

The Macron ( ' ) is used as a Diacritical Mark, placed 
over or under certain letters, to indicate particular sounds. 

The Breve ( " ) is used as a Diacritical Mark over cer- 
tain letters. 

The Diaerisis ( " ) is used to show that the vowel over 
which it is placed does not belong to the same syllable as 



56 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

the one preceding it. It is also placed over or under single 
vowels to indicate particular sounds. 

The Dot ( * ) is used over or under a letter to indicate a 
particular sound. 

The Cedilla ( , ), or little z, is used under the letter c to 
indicate the sound of s. 

The Tilde ( ~ ) denotes contraction, and is used over n 
to show the omission of g before it ; and sometimes over a 
vowel to show the omission of n or 7)i after it. Also, in 
Reading Books, to indicate the Compound Inflection or 
Wave ; and it is sometimes placed over a letter to indicate 
a particular sound. 

EXAMPLES. 
Al'most, com'monly, incom'prehen' sible, worshipped, whispered, care, 
Ihere, f6r, ftirl, use-ful-ness, mani-fest, tho', 'tis, John's, make, mean, 
mine, moan, music, rhyme, food, get, -ehord, was', exist, linger, link, 
veil, mSt, mgt, sit, n6t, but, hymn, f65t, real, geometry, far, fall, p'ique, 
do, rude, last, what, done, wolf, push, gem, facade, term, fTrm^ canon, 
nS,med (Lat.). 

MISCELLANEOUS POINTS. 

The Paragraph ( IT ) is sometimes used to mark the 
divisions of a chapter. It is also used in correcting for the 
press. 

The Section ( ^ ) is often used to mark the paragraphs 
of a book or chapter. 

The Index ( m^^ ) is used to call special attention to a 
passage. 

The Asterism ( *^* ) is used like the Index, but is less 
forcible. 

The Caret ( a ) is used in writing to show where some- 
thing which has been omitted ought to be inserted. 

The Double Comma ( „ ) is used to show the omission 
of the word under which it is placed. 

The Brace [ ] j is used to connect several lines or words 
which are to be taken together. 

Leaders ( ) are used to lead the eye across a 

blank space. 

Marks of Reference ( * t H II ^ ) are used to call at- 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 57 

tention to explanatory notes at the side or. bottom of a page. 
The Asterisk (* ) is used first, then the Dagger ( f ), Double 
Dagger ( |), Section ( § ), Parallels ( || ), and Paragraph ( ^ ), 
successively; and if more are required, they are doubled, 
and tripled if necessary, in the same order. Sometimes let- 
ters or figures inclosed in curves are used for the feame pur- 
pose, especially if the notes are numerous, or placed in%the 
Appendix instead of the margin. 

Superiors (^ ^, ^, &c., or ^, 2, ^, <fcc.,) are sometimes 
used as Marks of Reference, and are preferable to the old 
arbitrary characters. 

EXEECISE3. 

1 The Spring Time of life is rapidly passing away 

2 Art is long and time is fleeting 

3 Contrasted words sometimes have their accents clianged, as ira- 
merge and emerge exercise and exorcise &c 

4 When the righteous are in authority the people rejoice but when 
the wicked beareth rule the people mourn 

5 Ms Sheldon & Co Please send me the following 

3 Doz Stoddard's Complete Arithmetics 
1 Bullions s Greek Grammars and 
1 Morris s Latin Lessons 

6 How very difficult it is to punctuate correctly 

7 Is not punctuation very easy when one understands the analysis 
of sentences 

8 Where did you find those beautiful flowers 

9 What ■ Are there no enjoyments in life None 

10 Alas What can one enjoy who is bereft of hope 

11 Over the river December Gen Andrew Jackson 

12 Butter is selling in the market at 20 @ 23 cts 

13 Lesson XXII Autumn Foliage. 

14 On the 4th of Aug having closed his school he departed 

15 West Va College Flemington Taylor Co W Va 

16 what a beautiful collection of birds 

17 If one even of the nearest stars were to be suddenly struck out 
of existence it would be several years before we should miss it from the 
sky 

18 To arms To arms they cry 

19 When you are sure that you are right then go ahead 

20 The men were in earnest and were determined to be heard 

21 Men women children cattle perished in the flood 



58 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

22 Books teachers and opportunities of every kind will fail to make 
scholars of those who lack industry 

23 He opened the book full of expectancy to find that he had been 
grossly deceived 

24 Please tell me sir how far it is to Wheeling 

25 Yes It is certainly a very curious coincidence 

26 No I would not do it on any consideration 

[ 27 He as was nati^ral enough supposed himself to be meant 

28 Who yields to fear that man I never could endure 

29 Said Tom to Dick Dick was his chum 

I wonder where the money goes 
Said Dick to Tom Now comrade come 
I'll tell you what my cash book shows 

30 The proper order of inquiry is a • What are the facts and b 
What are the reasons for those facts 

31. If this be true miserable fate I am utterly hopelessly ruined 

32 The most prejudicial the Author means prejudiced man will cease 
to oppose the measure when he discovers that it will double his income 

33 Will he never but why should I care 

34 My dear native hills shall I never see them again 

35 While he was doing this not with a very good grace the other 
members of the party came up 

36 Many a man and woman too if the truth were known I think has 
regretted a hasty decision 

37 The result of all this labor and expense is a failure 

88 And so we left the mountain Another interesting subject for 
investigation is the inscription in the cave 

39 Chapter 4 The Regimental Organization 

40 Let us then be up and doing 

With a heart for any fate Longfellow 

41 That honesty is the best policy is oftener said than believed but 
here is a whole nation testifying to the truth of it If Y Evening Post 

42 Said Harry then Now let the bravest follow me 

43 Let no one think said Oliver that I fear the man But I scorn to 
notice him 

44 What said he can be more disagreeable than to beat the bush 
while another catches the bird 

45 The speaker said that he would soon make this point clear 

46 Where are yon going I asked To Boston said he 

47 There is nothing honorable that is not innocent and nothing mean 
but what attaches guilt 

48 It was a saying of Socrates that we should eat and drink in order 
to live instead of living as many do in order to eat and drink 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA GE. 59 

49 He is not prepared thoroughly to weigh the arguments 

50 John said Wilham where are you going 

51 By Cowley the Philosopher Hobbes is compared to Columbus 

52 Richard Green Parker says James Russell Lowell is a great genius 

53 In the above sentence Who is the genius and Who says so 

54 Is the man described in the next exercise a good man or a bad 
man 

55 He is an old experienced man in vice and wickedness he is never 
found opposing the works of iniquity he takes delight in the downfall 
of his neighbors he never rejoices in the prosi)erity of any of his fellow 
creatures he is always ready to assist in destroying the peace of society 
he takes no pleasure in serving the Lord he is uncommonly diligent in 
sowing discord among his friends and acquaintances he takes no pride 
in laboring to promote the cause of Christianity he has not been negli- 
gent in endeavoring to stigmatize all public teachers he makes no ex- 
ertions to subdue his evil passions he strives hard to build up Satan's 
kingdom he lends no aid to the support of the Gospel among the hea- 
then he contributes largely to the evil adversary he pays no attention to 
good advice he gives great heed to the devil he will never go to heaven 
he must go where he will receive the just recompense of reward. 

56. Boston Mass March 10th 1877 

Ms C Williams and Co 

Dear Sirs Your favor of the 7tli inst is received and 
I am glad to inform you that Mr Jones has paid his Note with Inter- 
est amounting to Seven Hundred and Fifty Dollars and Twenty five cents 
and that I have placed the money in the Merchants Bank of this city 
subject to your order 

Very respectfully Yours 

James Bradford 

PART II.— ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology is that part of Grammar which pertains to 

individual words. 

The Divisions of Etymology are Classification, In- 
flection, Composition, and Derivation. 

CHAPTER I.— CLASSIFICATION, 

Classification is the grouping together of words which 
are alike in respect to their use or inflection. 

The Chief Object of Classification is to facilitate 
the learning of the forms of words. 

The Parts of Speech are the iiine principal classes of 



60 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

words, called ISTouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Copulas, Verbs, 
Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. 

CLASS I. —NOUNS. 
A Noun (or Substantive) is a word used as a name. 

SUB-CLASSES. 

1. A Proper Noun is the name of an individual. 

2. A Common Noun is a name common to many in- 
dividuals. 

1st SUB-CLASS.— PROPER NOUNS. 

Proper Names of Persons usually consist of two or 
more parts. 

Other Proper Names generally consist of only one 
part. 

A Prename, Given Name, or Christian Name, 
is the first part of a person's name. 

A Surname, or Family Name, is the last part of a 
person's name. 

A Middle Name is an additional Prename. 

Surnames alone are common nouns, except where 
Prenames are understood. 

2nd SUB-CLASS.-COMMON NOUNS. 
DIVISIONS. 

1. Full (or Mobile) ]S'ouns are those having the three 
Modes of Inflection called Gender, Number, and Case ; as 
Julius, Author, &g. 

2. Defective (or Fixed) Nouns are those not having 
the Mode of Inflection called Gender; as Smith, book, &c. 

2nd DIVISION.— DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 
SUB-DIVISIONS.— 4. (See Note 7.) 

1. Masculine Nouns are names of males and of such 
other objects as exhibit masculine properties ; as " Walter ", 
"boy", "sun", &c. 

2. Feminine Nouns are names of females and of such 
other objects as exhibit feminine properties ; as " Sarah ", 
u gjp;[ n^ u jnQon ", <fcc, 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 61 

8. Doubtful Nouns are such names of persons and of 

some of the larger animals as do not indicate the sex, as 
''teacher", "Moose", &c. 

4. Neuter Nouns are such names of inanimate objects 
as are neither masculine nor feminine, and names of animals 
whose sex is unknown or obscure ; as "ball", "mouse", 
" child ", &c. 

Note. Many Neuter Nouns become Masculine or Femi- 
nine by Personification. 

METAPHYSICAL SUB-CLASSES OF NOUNS 

1. A Concrete Noun is the name of some material 
thing ; as " stone ", &q. 

2. An Abstract Noun is the name of some immaterial 
thing; as "time", &g. 

GROUPS OF COMMON NOUNS. 

1. A Collective Noun is the name of a collection of 
individuals, as "school", &g. 

2. A Material Noun is the name of a substance con- 
sidered in reference to mass or quantity; as "earth", 
" wheat ", " gold ", &g. 

3. A Participial Noun is a Participle used as a name. 
Notes. 1. A Common Noun personified becomes a 

Proper Noun. 

2. Surnames have originated from paternal names, oc- 
cupations, localities, peculiarities, &g! 

EXERCISES. 

1. House, book, time, friendship, sand, coal, beauty, redness, school, 
army, society, multitude, thing, world, James, education, Abraham 
Lincoln, Boston, running, Hartford, Henry Ward Beecher, Smith, Ed- 
ward Baker, Richard Henry Lee Brewer, virtue, wealth, Benjamin 
Carpenter, John Stewart, 

2. William Henry Brown, Horace White, Edwin Strong, Alfred Marsh, 
Richard Hill, Julius Dale, Webster, Weaver, Shepherd, Cooper, Farmer, 
Tanner, Walter Long, David Short, Sun, Moon, Star, Sirius, Aldebaran, 
Hudson, Johnson, McDonald, Fitzjames, Fitz Hugh, Baltimore, Lake 
Erie, Potomac River, Alleghany Mountains. 



62 A COMPLETE 8GIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 

CLASS II.— ADJECTIVES. 

An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun or pro- 
noun. 

SUB-CLASSES. -2. 

1. A Descriptive Adjective is one describing the 
thing signified by the word it modifies, as " long," " wooden," 
"persistent,' &c. 

A Definitive Adjective is one which merely limits 
or restricts the word it modifies, as "this", "some", 
"other", "ten", &g. 

1st SUB-CLASS.— DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES. 
DIVISIONS— 3. 

1. A Qualitative Adjective is one expressing some 
quality of the thing signified by its noun; as " good", 
"large", "sweet", &c. 

2. A Material Adjective is one expressing that of 
which a thing is composed; as "wooden", "golden", <fcc. 

3. A Participial Adjective is a Participle used as a 
modifier, including Present and Past Participles, and those 
Adjectives ending in "ant" and "ent" which were once 
Participles ; as " resonant", " confident", <fec. 

Note. Some Participial Adjectives are also Qualitative. 

2nd SUB-CLASS.— DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVES. 
DIVISIONS.— 3. 

1. Articles are the words "an" or "a" and "the." 

2. Numeral Adjectives are those used in number- 
ing or counting. 

3. Pronominal Adjectives are those frequently 
used alone, as if they were Pronouns. 

1st DIVISION.-ARTICLES. 

1. The Definite Article is the word " the." 

2. The Indefinite Article is the word " an," which 
becomes "a" before a Consonant. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA GE. 63 

2nd DIVISION-NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 
SUB-DIVISI0NS.-2. 

1 . Cardinal Numerals are those expressing numbers ; 
as '• one," " two," " three," &c. 

2. Ordinal Numerals are those expressing orders; 
as " first ", '' second ", " third ", &>g. 

3d DIVISION-PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

SUB-DIVISI0NS.-5. 

1. Demonstratives are the words the, this, these, that, 
those, former, latter, both, such and same. 

2. Distributives are the words each, every, either, 
neither and whether. 

3. Indefinites are the words some, other, another, any, 
many, feio, one, none, all and several. 

4. Interrogatives are the words what, lohich and 

lohether. 

5. Relatives are the words lohat, and lohich. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. The more one has, the more he desh'es. This is mine, and those 
are yours. That is better than these. The former is worse than the 
latter. Both are mistaken. Such is the result. The same is true of 
the other party. 

2. Let him summon each and every of them. Either maybe used; 
but neither is suitable. Show whether of these two thou hast chosen. 

3. Some are better than others. Another will do as well. He has 
not any. Many are called ; but few are chosen. One is better than 
none. 

All wished to go ; but several were unable. 

4. What will he do % Which is the largest book 1 Whether is easier 
to say this or that 1 

5. He spends what time he can get in study. He cultivates a farm, 
which farm he I'eceived from his father. They returned the money, 
which thing was very creditable to them. They lost what money they 
had. 

He inquired which road would lead him to the city. 

GROUPS OF ADJECTIVES. 
1. Proper Adjectives are those derived from Proper 
!N"ames; as " English", &c. 



64 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

2. Periodical Adjectives are those derived from names 
of periods of time; as "daily", " hourly", " weekly", &g. 

3. Replicatives are those expressing repetition; as 
"single ", " double ", " triple ", &c. 

4. Combinatives are those derived from names of 
combinations; as "triangular", "quadrangular", "pentago- 
nal", &c. 

5. Singular Adjectives are those denoting unity; as 
"an" (or "a"), "one", "each", "every", "either", 
" neither ", &c. 

6. Plural Adjectives are those denoting plurality ; as 
" many ", " several ", " divers ", " two ", " three ",•" four ", 

&G. 

EXERCISES. 

1. The French people are noted for their politeness. 

2. The year 1876 is called the centennial year of the American Re- 
public. 

3. Single vices bring in their train manifold miseries. 

4. A hexagonal figure is one having six corners. 
A quadrilateral figure is one having four sides, 

5. Each individual has his own personal peculiarities. 
Every man is at some time in need of assistance. 
Either course is practicable ; but neither is commendable. 

6. Many attempts have been made to reach the North Pole. 
Several nations at divers times have sent out exploring expedi- 

ditions. 

The Israelites sojourned forty years in the wilderness. 

7. Good houses. Bad men. Long roads. Little books. American 
scenery. English cheese. French politeness. Running brooks. Fly- 
ing clouds. Rainy weather. This person. That lady. These flowers. 
Those peaches. One apple. Seven plums. The horses. An inkstand. 
A penholder. Former times. Latter days. Both ways. Each exam- 
ple. Every page. Either side. Neither plan. Some chestnuts. Other 
fruits. Many times. 

8. A white house. The crooked river. All useful things. Such 
valuable hints. Few diligent students. Much hard study. Several 
stormy days. Another pleasant morning. A large white house. The 
poor old man. Six little white mice. The first lesson. The fifth 
added line. These four double rows. Ten little alumnae. Those two 
long triple cords. A sevenfold vengeance. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA OE, 65 

CLASS III —PRONOUNS. 
A Pronoun is a word used to represent a ISToun. 

SUB-CLASSES— 5, 

1. A Personal Pronoun is one which has the Mode 
of Inflection called person. 

List. The only personal Pronoun is the word " Z" (in- 
cluding its inflectional forms). 

2. A Relative Pronoun is one which relates to some 
word or words in a preceding member of a sentence, and 
thus connects the two members. 

The Antecedent of a Relative is that to which it re- 
lates. 

List. The Relative Pronouns are who, which {what, 
where, whence, whither, lohy, how), as, that, than, and the 
compounds of these with " so " and " ever ", as " whoever ", 
" whosoever ", " whichsoever ", &c. 

An Interrogative Pronoun is one used to make a 
Sentence interrogative. 

List. The Interrogative Pronouns are who, xohich, what, 
whether. 

4. An Indefinite Pronoun is one which represents 
some unexpressed indefinite term, such as " something", 
" somebody", " anybody", "some person", " any person", <fcc. 

List. The indefinite pronouns are it, one, other, and 
there. 

5. A Possessive Pronoun is one which is derived 
from the Possessive Case of a Personal Pronoun. 

List. The Possessive Pronouns are hers, ours, yours, 
and theirs, — and sometimes mine, thine, and his. 

COMPOUND FORMS. 

Myself, thyself, &c. (usually called Compound Per- 
sonal Pronouns) are consolidated phrases, — each consist- 
ing of the noun " self" limited by a Possessive Case of the 
Personal Pronoun. 

Himself and themselves are anomalous forms in 



66 A COMPLETE 8GIENTIF1G GRAMMAR 

whicli "him" and "them " are improperly used for "his " 
and ''their". 

I have seen them myself; and you will soon see them, for they are 
coming here. One needs patience with some people. It is uncertain 
whether he will pay the Note or not. Mine is better than theirs. That 
horse of yours is lame. 

CLASS IV —COPULAS. 

A Copula is a word used to connect the subject of a 
Sentence with the Predicate. 

Xjist. The Copulas are the word he (or am) in all its 
forms, and, in a few sentences, the word icorth. (See IsTote 6.) 

CLASS V-VERBS. 

A Verb is a word which may be used as the predicate in 
a sentence without a Copula. (See Kote 5.) 

A Participle is a form of the verb which may be 
used as the predicate in a sentence with a Copula. 

SUB-CLASSES-2. (See Note 4.) 

1. A Regular Verb is one whose Past (Tense) Stem 
and Past Participle are formed by annexing *' ed " to the 
Present Stem, and making the changes required by the 
Rules for Spelling. 

2. An Irregular Verb is one whose Past Stem and 
Past Participle are not formed as those of a Regular Verb. 

GROUPS OF VERBS.-4. 

A Copulative Verb is one compounded of a Verb and 
Copula. 

List. The Copulative Verbs are become^ befall^ and be- 
chance. 

2. A Defective Verb is one which lacks some of the 
usual forms. 

List. The Defective Yerbs are shall^ toillj may, can, 
musty oughtf quoth and wit. 

3. A Redundant Verb is one which has duplicate 
forms in some of its parts. 

4. An Auxiliary Verb is one used in forming the 
tenses of other verbs. 



OF THE ENOLISH LANG JJAGE. 67 

List. The Auxiliary Verbs are do^ shall, will, may, can, 
must, and have. 

OBJECT. 

The Object of a Verb is the modifier of it which 
answers the question " What ? " in reference to the Verb. 

Example. In the sentence '• He lost his knife," the Ob- 
ject of "lost " is " knife." 

EXERCISES. 

1. Birds are musical. Birds sing. Birds are singing. Boys play.. 
Boys are playing. Games are played. I write. I am writing. Letters 
are written. The tower stands. He speaks. They saw him. We 
heard them. Some persons left the house. We saw those persons. 
Rich men have much money. Idlers waste their time. Mary found her 
book. Susan learns her lessons. 

2. These apples are ripe ; those are unripe. Some students are dili- 
gent ; others are idle. The former condition was tolerable ; the latter 
was intolerable. This method is easy: the other was difficult. All 
men have some felicity ; none enjoy perfect happiness. 

CLASS VI.- ADVERBS. 
An Adverb is a word used to modify a Verb, Copula, 
Adjective or Adverb. 

SUB-CLASSES.— 2. 

1 . Limiting Adverbs are those which are used singly, 
and only as modifiers. 

2. Conjunctive Adverbs are those used in pairs, — 
each one of a pair being the Correlative of the other, — and 
each pair serving as a Connective. 

GROUPS OF ADVERBS.-IO. 

1 . A Modal Adverb is one use to modify a Copula, 
— or, in a Verbal Sentence, to modify the manner of the 
assertion, as " not ", " truly ", " perhaps ", &q. 

2. An Adverb of Time is one used to indicate time 
as "now'\ "then'', "lately", &c. 

3. An Adverb of Place is one used to indicate local- 
ity, as " here ", " there ", " somewhere ", &c. 

4. An Adverb of Cause is one used to indicate cause, 
as "why", "wherefore", "therefore", &g. 



68 ^ COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GBAMMAE 

5. An Adverb of Manner is one used to indicate 

manner, as " rapidly ", " slowly ", &c. 

6. An Adverb of Degree is one used to indicate de- 
gree, as " greatly ", " extremely ", &c. 

7. An Adverb of Number is one used to indicate 
number, as " once ", " twice ", " thrice ", &c. 

8. An Adverb of Order is one used to indicate 
arrangement, as " firstly ", " secondly ", " thirdly ", " lastly ", 
&c. 

9. An Adverb of Interrogation is one used to indi- 
cate inquiry, as " why ", " where ", '' w^hence ", " how ", &Q,. 

10. An Adverb of Negation is one used to indicate 
denial, as " not ", " never ", "nowise '', &g. 

LIST OE CONJUI^CTIVE ABVEUBS. 

As — so; as — as; how — so; so — as; the — the; when — 
then ; whenever — then ; whensoever — then ; where— there ; 
wherever — there ; wheresoever — there ; whence — thence ; 
whencesoever — thence ; whither — thither. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Now, then, always, here, there, yonder, somewhere, hence, where- 
fore, therefore, fairly, faithfully, well, badly, very, much, greatly, once, 
twice, firstly, secondly, how, why, where, not, truly, surely, doubtless, 
perhaps, perchance, peradventure. 

2. He writes well. They understand the lesson well. She always 
writes carelessly. That person frequently comes here. These students 
manifest very great intelligence. The fruit is certainly good. They 
were doubtless mistaken. He twice returned. 

The speaker showed, firstly, the practicability of the plan ; and when 
he had done this, then he explained the utility of the work. How high 
are those mountains 1 Why is he not ready ? 

CLASS VII-PREPOSITIONS. 

A Preposition is a word used to show the relation be- 
tween other words. 

The Object of a Preposition is a word which ans- 
wers the question " What ? '' in reference to the Preposition. 

SUB-CLASSES.-2. 
1 . A Simple Preposition is one derived from a siur 
gle original word. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 69 

2. A Compound Preposition is one derived from 
two or more original words. 

1st STJB-CL ASS. -SIMPLE PREPOSITIONS. 
DIVISI0NS.-2. 

1. A Substantive Preposition is one derived from a 
Noun, as "of", "by", &c. 

2. An Adjective Preposition is one derived from an 
Adjective, as "after", &q. 

2nd SUB-CLASS.-COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS. 
DIVISI0NS.-2. 

1. A Phrase Preposition is one consisting of a Prep- 
osition and its Object united, as " around ", " beside ", &c. 

2. A Double Preposition is one consisting of two 
Prepositions combined, or of a Preposition and a Participle, 
as "into", "towards ", &c. 

Nota. AVhen two separate Prepositions occur together, 
they do not constitute a Compound Preposition; but there 
is an Ellipsis of some word or words. Example. He came 
from beyond the sea=He came from (a place which is 
situated) beyond the sea. 

LISTS AND DEFINITIONS OF PREPOSITIONS. 

1st SUB-CLASS.-SIMPLE PREPOSITIONS. 
1st DIVISION.-STIBSTANTIVE PREPOSITIONS. 

At= thing joined, as He sits at the table. 

by=lst, A House ; 2nd, Intermediate Station ; as He came 
by the Post Office. 

down=hill, and is used instead of adown^ ==off hill, 
=from a high place. 

for=cause, as Pie waited /or the cars. 

from=beginning, as He came//'or>i Chicago, 

in=cavity, as He studies in his room. 

of= origin, as The fruit of the tree. 

off=thing separated, as The ship lies off Stonington. 

on==support, as The boy stood on the burning deck. 

round= circuit, as They went round the hill. 

through=door, as He passed through the gate. 



• 70 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

till=end(of time), as He waited ^z7^ night. 
to=end (of space), as He went to Boston. 
up=high place, as He went up the hill. 
with=lst, A Willow; 2nd, A band; 3d, Thing con- 
nected ; as He went %oith his brother. 

2iid DIVISIOl^. -ADJECTIVE PHEPOSITIOIfS. 

After=later or hinder (in space or time), as He arrived 
after the fair. After the Artillery came the Infantry. 

over==higher, as He saw a sword suspended over his 
head. 

under=lower, as They were sent under the yoke. 

Ifote. These Adjectives have come to be used as Prep- 
ositions by a process of Ellipsis, thus — He arrived after the 
fair=He arrived (in the) after (time of) the fair. After 
the Artillery came the Infantry = (In the) after (j)lace of) 
the Artillery came the Infantry, &c., &c. 

2nd SUB-CLASS. -COMPOUISTD PREPOSITIONS. 
1st DIVISIOK.-PHRASE PREPOSITIONS. 

About=on the bout=on the doubling, as He went about 
the town. 

above=on the bove=on the higher place, as He went 
above the clouds. 

across==on the cross=on the crossing, as He went across 
the street. 

adown=off hill=from a high place, as It swej^t adoivn 
the sky. 

against =on the gainst=on the opj)osed thing, as He 
leaned against the wall. 

along=on the long=on the length, as They marched 
along the street. 

Q yv-i 1 /-I j 

.-,.[- =in the midst=in the middle place, as He stood 

amidst the ruins. 

among =in the mong=in the number, as There was a trai- 
tor among them. 

around=on the round=on the circuit, as He went around 
the camp. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 71 

atliwart=on the thwart=on the cross, as They sent a 
shot athwart our bows. 

before =by the fore (iu time or position), as He stood 
before the king. 

behind=by the hind (in time or position), as They stood 
heliind the house. 

below=by the low=by the lower place, as These rocks 
lie below the coal. 

beneath==by the neath=by the lower part, as He lies 
beneath a rude and nameless stone. 

beside^by the side, as He stood beside the coffin. 

besides=by the sides=separate from, as There were four 
besides him. 

between^by the twain, as He passed between the two 
armies. 

betwixt=by the two, as He sat betwixt two aged oaks. 

beyond=by the yond=by the farther place, as The house 
stands beyond the river. 

since =5^7 A- thence=" time from that," as I have not seen 
him si7ice that battle. 

thro ughout== through the oat=through the far portion= 
through the whole, as He traveled throughout the State. 

underneath==under the neath=below, as He lies under- 
neath this stone. 

within=with the in=with the cavity, as The kernel lies 
within the shell. 

without=with the out=outside of, as Some drive the car 
without the gate. 

2nd DIVISION.-DOUBLE PREPOSITIONS. 

Into=cavity end, as He went i7ito the house, 
upon = high-place support, as The snow lies u^yonthQ roof, 
until =ontill= support end, as He w^aited until March, 
towards^end looked==looked for end, as He went towards 
home. 

t DEFINING PREPOSITIONS. 
The Definitions of Prepositions here given are the 



72 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

primary or principal ones, from which many others have 
been derived. 

A valuable exercise is to trace from these primary 
significations the various meanings which the Prepositions 
are found to have in different sentences. 

EXAMPLE. 

The word " by " signifies 1, A liouse ; 2, Intermediate Station ; as 
He came hy the school-house ; 3, Anything intermediate, and hence, 
a road, as He came hy the turnpike ; 4, Anything which serves as a 
guide, as He sailed hy the compass ; He drew the line hy a ruler ; He 
solved the problem hy the rule ; 5, Anything instrumental, as He took 
the town &?/ assault; He gained the fortress ?)?/ strategem ; He secured 
his election hy the use of money ; He obtained the position hy the in- 
fluence of his friends ; He secured respect hy his honesty ; He obtained 
admittance &^ means of a Pass; He returned &?/ Steamboat ; Q, Any- 
thing near, as He stood hy the lake ; The dog remained hy the body of his 
master ; He will return hy Wednesday ; He will come hy and hy (i. e. 
very soon, (See Note 24) ; 7, A place lohere one does not stop, as He 
passed hy the church ; 8, A period of time in which something is done, 
as He studies hy day and hy night ; 9, A dimension adjoining and per- 
pendicular to another, as The room is fifteen feet hy twenty. 

Moi'eover, since hyes, or intermediate stations, were not ahvays fixed 
in the most direct route, — and, the roads being straitened, they were 
sometimes left at a distance, — the word hy came to signify, 10, A place 
out of the usual route, and hence, retired, unfrequented, or not easily 
accessible ; and at length it Avas used as an Adjective in that sense, as 
The house stands in a hye place ; 11, A journey, as in the expression 
" Good hye." 

EXERCISES. 

1. The old man remains at home. He sits by the fire. The horses 
ran down the hill. John went for assistance. Tea is brought from 
China. The bird was kept in a cage. He is reading the work of a 
learned man. The Light Ship is anchored off the mouth of the harbor. 
The book lies on the table. The surveyor proceeded round the field. 
The lonely travelers went through the forest. They will remain till the 
end of the year. He sent the book to them. They went up the moun- 
tain with the guide. Those who came after them passed over the river 
and under the arch. He is (standing) on the bye. 

2. He wandered about the city. They went across the Ferry. The 
fruit was hanging far above his reach. He ran against a post. The 
party proceeded along the river. He built his cabin amidst the forest, 
and lived among the savages. The wolves howled around his dwell- 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 73 

ing. The lightning darts athwart the sky. The beggar stood before the 
door. The Indian skulked behind a tree. The treasure was found a 
few feet below the surface of the ground. The noble ship has sunk be- 
neath the wave. 

3. He stood beside the monument. He had, besides this weapon, 
a large knife. The beautiful valley lies between the lofty ridges. 
Betwixt two seats one comes to the ground. The State extends beyond 
the mountains. Since that event he has not been seen. A large vault 
was constructed underneath the house. Many curiosities are contained 
within the walls of the museum. Pompey left his Army without the 
city. The rumor spread throughout the country. He put the article 
into his trunk. He laid the book upon the table. The storm continued 
until Thursday. They proceeded towards the town. 

CLASS VIII. -CONJUNCTIONS. 
A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, 

phrases, or sentences. 

SUB-CLASSES.-2. 

1. An Absolute Conjunction is one which consti- 
tutes a complete connective by itself, as " and ", " lest ", and 
" but ". 

2. Relative Conjunctions are those used in pairs, — 
each one of a pair being the correlative of the other, — and 
both constituting one connective, as " though — yet ", &g. 

DIVISI0NS.-5. 

1. Verbal Conjunctions are those derived from 
verbs. 

Liist. The Verbal Conjunctions are and^ hicty lest, though^ 
although, yet, if, unless. 

2. Adjective Conjunctions are those derived from 
Adjectives. 

Liist. The Adjective Conjunctions are theii, either, neither, 
or, nor, and whether, 

3. A Substantive Conjunction is one derived from 
a Noun, as for. 

4. Phrase Conjunctions are consolidated Preposi- 
tional Phrases. 

List. The Phrase Conjunctions are because, therefore, and 
indeed. 



74 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC ORAMMAB 

5. Composite Conjunctions are those variously com- 
pounded. 

List. The Composite Conjunctions, are as (from " also ") 
and since (from "sith thence"). 

LIST OF RELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 

Though — yet ; although — yet ; if — yet ; if — then ; unless 
— then ; because — therefore ; as — therefore ; since — there- 
fore; therefore — for; therefore — because; indeed — but; 
either — or ; neither — nor ; whether — or ; whereas — there- 
fore. 

DEFINITIONS OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

1. And=add, as Mary a7id Susan went. Two and three 
make five. 

2. But=be out or be opposite, as He lost all but one. 
They tried ; hut they failed. 

3. Lest=loosed=separated, as Watch and pray lest ye 
enter into temptation. 

4. Though or although=admit, as Though he appears 
rough, yet he is intelligent. 

5. Yet=get=admit also, as Although it is strange, yet it 
is true. 

6. If=give=admit or suppose, as 7/" this is true, then the 
man is ruined, ^'he had committed an offense, yet he was 
not wholly depraved. 

7. Unless=loosen^separate, as Unless it shall rain soon, 
(then) the crops will fail. 

8. Then=in that (case), as If youth is wasted, then old 
age is sure to be miserable. 

9. Either=one of two, as Either he will fail, or he will 
change his plans. 

10. Or=other, as He will (either) accomplish his purpose, 
or he will die in the attempt. 

11. Neither=not either, as Neither does it belong to him 
nor to them. 

12. Nor=not other, as They will neither work themselves 
nor permit others to work. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE, 75 

13. Wliether= which of two, as He was asked whether \lq 
would go, or stay. 

14. Because=by the cause, as because they are rich, 
therefore they are proud. 

15. Therefore=for that, as Therefore they failed, because 
they had not prepared themselves. 

16. Indeed=in fact=truly, as They were disappointed 
indeed^ but not discouraged. 

17. As= because, as in the sentence As time is short, 
therefore we must hasten. 

18. Since=because, as Since they will not listen to reason, 
therefore they must suffer. 

19. For=because, as I will not attempt a reply, for the 
time will not permit. 

20. Whereas=as what=for what (cause)^because, as 
Whereas many sheep are annually killed by dogs, therefore 
be it enacted That every person keeping a dog shall pay a 
tax of ten dollars annually. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Bryant and Longfellow are distinguished American poets. 

2. Over the mountain and over the moor. 

3. The merchant went to New York ; and there he made his pur- 
chases. 

4. I am anxious to obtain that work ; but I fear that I shall not get it. 

5. I will undertake it, if you will assist me. 

6. We assisted him, though he did not deserve it. 

7. Though it is winter, yet we find it very pleasant. 

8. I will certainly go, unless something unexpected shall prevent. 

9. Be very careful, lest you make some mistake. 

10. I wish that he would either resign his office or discharge the du- 
ties of it. 

11. He seems to be neither able nor willing to fulfill his promise. 

12. We must persevere, whether we find the work pleasant or un- 
pleasant. 

13. Opposition was made by none but him. 

14. If he is honest, yet the people have no confidence in him. 

15. Unless he had done this, then nothing would have been saved. 

16. The spirit indeed is willing, but the flesh is weak. 

17. He lost as many dollars as he gained cents. 

18. Endeavor so to treat others as you wish others to treat you. 



76 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

19. When the Spring shall return, then the flowers will appear, 

20. Whenever a man stoops to dishonesty, then he loses his self- 
respect. 

21. Wheresoever the carcase is, there will the eagles be gathered 
together. 

22. Whence come malaria, thence come fevers. 

23. Whither he has gone, thither will 1 go. 

CLASS IX.-INTERJECTIONS. 
An Interjection is a disconnected emotional word or 
sound thrown between words forming sentences. 

SUB-CLASSES.-2. 

1. Inarticulate Interjections are mere sounds which 
are not represented by letters, as groans, coughs, whistles, 
&c. 

2. Articulate Interjections are radical words. 

2nd STrB-CLASS.-DIVISI01irS.-2. 

1. General Interjections are those which indicate 
emotion in general, and are used indiscriminately for differ- 
ent kinds of emotion, as "' O," " Oh ! " " ah ! " " aha ! " « ho I ' 
" halloo ! " 

2. Special Interjections are those which are restricted 
to certain kinds of emotion. 

2nd DIVISI0N.-STJB-DIVISI0NS.-3. 

1. Joyous Interjections are those indicating joy, as 
" hey ! " " hurrah ! " " huzzah ! " &c. 

2. Sorrowful Interjections are those indicating sor- 
row or pain, as " Alas I " " alack ! " " woe ! " &c. 

3. Contemptuous Interjections are those denoting 
contempt, as " pshaw ! " "pooh ! " " foh ! " " ftidge ! " &c. 

SPECIAL CLASS.-EXCLAIIATIONS. 
An ISxclamation is a word used in calling or exclaim- 
ing. 

STJB-CLASSES.-2. 

1. An Emotional Exclamation (or Interjection) is 
one indicating some emotion or feeling. 

2. A Rational Exclamation is one used for some 
rational purpose, and not to indicate emotion. 



OF THE ENQLIBH LANG UAGE. 'J'J 

2iid SUB-CLASS-RATIONAL EXCLAMATIONS. 
DIVISI0NS.-3. 

1. Compellatives are names, titles, <fcc., used in direct 
address. 

2. Responsives are the words Yea^ YeSy Nay^ and iVo, 
used in answering questions. 

3. Fragments are miscellaneous exclamatory words, 
such as " well", " what "," come ", '' hush "," good ", &c., 
which may be regarded as fragments of sentences. 

EXERCISES. 

1. how bright the sun shines ! John, come here. Halloo, James, 
let me see the book. How dare you come here, you villain 1 Well, 
Thomas, what is the news in Boston] Were you there at the time of 
the great fire ? Yes. I saw the fire ; and oh ! I never wish (wish 
never) to see another. Are you sick to-day % No. I am in usual 
health. How many, alas ! are ruined by vice ! 

2. Come, Henry, what did you see at tlie Fair \ — Not much. — Pshaw ! 
I fear you were not observing. — Pooh! What did I go for but to 
observe % Hurrah ! Hurrah ! ! The glorious day has come ! 

Ho ! Halloo ! I want to cross the Ferry. Well, I will come directly. 



CHAPTER IL-INFLECTION. 

The General Stem of a word is its first, or principal, 
form. 

The Termination of a word is the part following the 
Stem. 

Inflection is changing the Stem or Termination of a 
word without changing its Class. 

The TJninflected Classes of words are Prepositions 
and Conjunctions. 

Modes of Inflection are the methods by which words 
are inflected for different purposes. 

INFLECTION OF N0UNS.-4 MODES. 
1st MODE OF INFLECTION.-GENDER. 

Gender is a mode of Inflection used to distinguish the 
sexes. 



78 A COMPLETE 8GIENTIFIG OBAMMAB 

A Masculine Form is a form denoting the male sex. 

A Feminine Form is one denoting the female sex. 

The Masculine Gender of a word is the aggregate of 
its masculine forms. 

The Feminine Gender of a word is the aggregate of 
its feminine forms. 

The Masculine Stem is the first, or principal, mascu- 
line form, and is the same as the general stem of the word. 

The Feminine Stem is the first feminine form. 

RULES FOR FORMING THE FEMININE STEM. 

1. In Proper Nouns add a, ina^ or etta, to the mascu- 
line stem, and then contract if necessary. (See Rules for 
Spelling, 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, and 12.) 

2. If the Masculine Stem ends with ws, drop us be- 
fore adding the feminine termination. 

3. In Common Nouns, except a few foreign words, 
add essj and then contract. 

* RULES FOR CONTRACTION. 

1. The a of a feminine termination may be changed to e, 

2. The n of me, or ina^ may be dropped, making it ie or ia. 

3. The ie may be changed to y. 

4. The final te of ette, may be dropped, making it et, 
r>. Drop a final i before adding ina. 

6. Drop e ov o before a final r, on adding ess / and some- 
times drop other letters. 

EXAMPLE. 

1. XiUCius becomes Lucia, Lucina, or Lucietta. 

2. These become Lucie, Lucine, and Luciette. 

3. These become Lucy, Lucie, and Luciet. 

LIST OF PROPER NOUNS, REGULAR. 
Adin, Alexander, Agrippa, Alfred, Anthony, Albert, 
Augustus, Amandus, Alcestus, Aurelius, Benedict, Camillus, 
Clement, Constant, Cornelius, Cecil, Celius, Charles, Car- 
olus, Claudius, Clarus, Clorus, Christian, Celestus, Da- 
vid, Emilus, Ernest, Edwin, Eugene, Faustus, Frederic, 
Florus, Gerald, George, Helenus, Henry, Harry, Hilary, 
Hortensius, Irenius, lanthus, James, Joseph, Josephus, John, 



i 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA GE, 79 

Julius, Justin, Julian, Lucius, Lucian, Louis, Laurus, Lucre- 
tius, Marius, Marcus, Marcellus, Myrus, Octavius, Paul, 
Rufus, Sylvanus, Stephen, Theodore, Theodosius, Thomas, 
Tullius, Ulric, Victor, Valerius, Virginius, William, Walter 
Winfred. 

PROPER NOUNS, IRREGULAR. 

Clorus, Clorinda ; David, Vida ; Emory, Emoroy ; Felix, 
Felicia; Francis, Frances; Floras, Florinde; Hans, Han- 
nah, Anna, or Ann ; James, Jaqueline ; Jesse, Jessa, or 
Jessica; Lucian, Lucinda; Perseus, Persis; Sylvanus, Syl- 
via; William, Wilhelmina. 

COMMON NOUNS, REGULAR. 

Abbot, Astor, Administrator, Adjutor, Ambassador, Ad- 
venturer, Anchorite, Arbiter, Arbitrator, Archer, Auditor, 
Author, Baron, Benefactor, Canon, Caterer, Chanter, Com- 
mander, Competitor, Conductor, Creator, Count, Dauphin, 
Deacon, Deserter, Doctor, Director, Diviner, Demander, 
Detractor, .Eagle, Editor, Embassador, Emperor, Emulator, 
Enchantor, Executor, Exactor, Farmer, Fornicator, Founder, 
Factor, Giant, God, Governor, Hebrew, Heir, Heritor, Her- 
mit, Huckster, Hunter, Host, Inhabiter, Inheritor, Instruc- 
tor, Jesuit, Jew, Launder, Lion, Mediator, Minister, Mister, 
Master, Monitor, Mayor, Negro, Offender, Ogre, Orator, 
Painter, Patron, Peer, Poet, Porter, Prior, Proprietor, 
Prophet, Prosecutor, Protector, Priest, Prince, Rector, Re- 
gent, Shepherd, Solicitor, Songster, Sorcerer, Steward, 
Suitor, Spectator, Sultan, Tailor, Testator, Tiger, Traitor, 
Tyrant, Tutor, Victor, Waiter, Warder, Wanderer, &c., <fcc. 

COMMON NOUNS, IRREGULAR. 

Bridegroom, Bride ; Carl, Carline ; Czar, Czarina ; Don, 
Donna; Duke, Duchess; Hero, Heroine; Landgrave, 
Landgravine ; Margrave, Margravine ; Marquis, Marchion- 
ess ; Palsgrave, Palsgravine ; Pythonist, Pythoness ; Sultan, 
Sultana; Testator, Testatrix; Signore, Signora; Widower, 
Widow. 

CORRESPONDING NOUNS. 

Corresponding Masculine and Feminine Nouns 



80 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

are those representing males and females of the same class, 
as "boy", "girl"; &c. 

Formation. Corresponding Nouns are formed, when 
necessary, by compounding words, as " male-child ", " female- 
child ", <fcc. 

EXERCISES. 

Julius, Julia; Prince, Princess; Administrator, Administratrix; 
Brother, Sister; Officer, Visitor, House, Tree, Oak-tree, Wasp, Rat. Kit- 
ten, Child, Winter, North-wind, Mississippi, Ganges, Atlantic, Chimbo- 
razo. Death, Time, Sword, Rifle, Parrott-Gun, Spring, Memory, Charity, 
Patience, Boston, Summer. 

2nd MODE OF INFLECTION-NUMBER. 

Number is a Mode of Inflection used to distinguish unity 
from Plurality. 

A Singular Forin of a Noun is one denoting one ob- 
ject, as "book". 

A Plural Form is one denoting more than one object, 
as *' books ". 

The Singular Stem of a word is its first singular 
form. 

The Plural Stem of a word is its first plural form. 

The Singular Number of a word is the aggregate of 
its singular forms. 

The Plural Number of a word is the aggregate of its 
plural forms. 

* RULES FOR FORMING THE PLURAL STEM. 

1. Generally add s to the Singular Stem. 

2. If the word ends with ch (soft), sA, s, 2, or x, add es, 

3. If the word ends with o preceded by a consonant, add 
esj except in Proper and Foreign Nouns. 

4. If the word ends with y preceded by a consonant 
change y to ie and add s. 

5. In life, knife, wife, leaf, sheaf, loaf, beef, thief, calf, half, 
elf, self, shelf, and wolf, change /or fe to ve, and add s, as 
" lives ", &c. 

6. In figures, letters, marks, and words used out of their 
classes, add 's as " 4's ", &c. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



81 



7. In seven words, and their compounds, change the vow- 
els, viz., ?7ia?i, 7ne7i / tcornan^ loomen / goose, geese ; foot^feet j 
tooth, teeth ; louse, lice / tnouse, mice. 

8. In ox, add en; and in child, add ren, as "oxen" 
" children ". 

9. In brother, die, and penny, form the double plurals 
brothers and brethren, dies and dice, pennies and pence. (See 
ISTote 8.) 

10. In compound words, inflect the principal part, as 
" courts-martial ", <fcc. 

11. In a condensed phrase, add s or es at the end. 

12. In a Name with a Title, inflect both, as " The Misses 
Smiths ", &c. (See Note 9.) 

13. In foreign words, when possible, use English plurals 
in ordinary discourse ; but in technical or scientific discourse 
use the foreign plurals. 

14. Always use the foreign plurals where they are formed 
by changing is to es or ides. 

* FOREIGN WORDS. 





Latin. i 


Singular. 


Plural. 


1. (Change final a to ae.) 


Calculus 


Calculi 


Singular. 
Alumna 


Plural. 
Alumnae 


Equus 
Echinus 


Equi 
Echini 


Alumina 


Aluminae 


Exodus 


Exodi 


Ammonia 


Ammoniac 


Focus 


Foci 


Aqua 
Arena 


Aquae 
Arenae 


Fungus 
Genius 


Fungi 
Genii 


Corona 
Formula 


Coronae 
Formulae 


Hippopotamus 
Literatus 


Hippopotami 
Literati 


Lamina 


Laminae 


Magus 


Magi 


Larva 


Larvae 


Nucleus 


Nuclei 


Macula 


Maculae 


Nautilus 


Nautili 


Minutia 


Minutiae 


Obolus 


Oboli 


Nebula 


Nebulae 


Polypus 


Polypi 


Siliqua 
Simla 


Siliquae 
Simiae 


Radius 
Stimulus 


Radii 
Stimuli 


Scoria Scoriae 
Tinctura Tincturae 
2. (Change us to i.) 

Alumnus Alumni 


3. (Change um to a.) 
Animal culum Animalcula 
Aquarium Aquaria 
Arcanum Arcana 



82 



A COMPLETE 8CIENTIFIQ QRAMMAB 



Singular. 
Corrigeudum 
Cranium 
Datura 
Desideratum 
Effluvium 
Encomium 
ErraLum 
Gymnasium 
Herbarium 
Medium 
Memorandum 
Momentum 
Menstruum 
Planetarium 
Rostrum 
Scholium 
Spectrum 
Speculum 
Stratum 
Trapezium 
Vinculum 

4. (Change is 
Amanuensis 
Analysis 
Antithesis 
Axis 
Basis 
Crisis 
Diaeresis 
Diesis 
Ellipsis 
Emphasis 
Fascis 
Hypothesis 
Metamorphosis 
Metropolis 
Oasis 

Parenthesis 
Phasis 
Praxis 
Synthesis 
Synopsis 
Thesis 



Plural. 
Corrigenda 
Crania 
Data 

Desiderata 
Effluvia ' 
Encomia 
Errata 
Gymnasia 
Herbaria 
Media 
Memoranda 
Momenta 
Menstrua 
Planetaria 
Eostra 
Scholia 
Spectra 
Specula 
Strata 
Trapezia 
Vincula 
to es.) 
Amanuenses 
Analyses 
Antitheses 
Axes 
Bases 
Crises 
Diaereses 
Dieses 
Ellipses 
Emphases 
Fasces 
Hypotheses 
Metamorphoses 
Metropoles 
Oases 

Parentheses 
Phases 
Praxes 
Syntheses 
Synopses 
Theses 



Singular. 


Plural. 


5. (Change is 


to ides.) 


Aphis 


Aphides 


Apsis 


Apsides 


Cantharis 


Cantharides 


Chrysalis 


Chrysalides 


Ephemeris 


Ephemerides 


Epidermis 


Epidermides 


Iris 


Irides 


Proboscis 


Proboscides 


6. (Change x 


to ces.) 


Appendix 


Appendices 


Calx 


Calces 


Calix 


Calices 


Cicatrix 


Cicatrices 


Helix 


Helices 


Matrix 


Matrices 


Quincunx 


Quincunces 


Radix 


Radices 


Varix 


Varices 


7. (Change 603 


to ices.) 


Apex 


Apices 


Caudex 


Caudices 


Index 


Indices 


Vertex 


Vertices 


Vortex 


Vortices 


8. (Change en 


. to ina.) 


Legumen 


Legumina 


Stamen 


Stamina 


Tegmen 


Tegmina 


9. (Change us to era.) 


Genus 


Genera 


10. (Make no 


change.) 


Apparatus 


Apparatus 


Hiatus 


Hiatus 



11. (Change both parts.) 
Ignis-fatuus Ignes-fatui 

Greek. 

1. (Change 07i to a.) 
Automaton Automata 

Ephemeron Ephemera 

Phenomenon Phenomena 



OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



83 



Singular. Plural. 

2. (Masculine.) 

Auak Anakim 

Targum Targumim 

Cherub Cherubim 

Pur Purim 

Seraph Seraphim 

Teraph Teraphim 

French. 



Singular. Plural, 

2. (Add to.) 
Dogma Dogmata 

Miasma Miasmata 
Stigma Stigmata 

3. (Change x to ges.) 
Larynx Larynges 

Pharynx Pharynges 

Phalanx Phalanges 

Italian. 

Dilettante Dillettanti 

Bandit Banditti 

Virtuoso Virtuosi 

Cicerone Ciceroni 

Hebrew- 

1. (Feminine.) 
Behemah Behemoth 

Mazzarah Mazzaroth 

Saba Sabaoth 



AMBIGUOUS NOUNS. 

Ambiguous Nouns are those having a Singular or 
Plural form only, but both Singular and Plural significa- 
tion, as 

Apparatus I Grouse Salmon 

Congeries Hose Series 

Corps Heathen Sheep 

Deer ' Perch Species 

Cattle is Singular in form, but Plural in sense. 

UNINFLECTED NOUNS- 
Uninflected Nouns are mostly those having Plural, but 
no Singular, forms, — some of them being singular in sense. 
A few Singular Nouns, as Mum, Nil, Now, <fcc., are unin- 
flected. 

1.— NOUNS PLURAL IN FORM AND SENSE. 



Abatis 


Abatis 


Beau 


Beaux 


Bateau 


Bateaux 


Billet-doux 


Billets-doux 


Chapeau 


Chapeaux 


Cheval 


Chevaux 


Chef-d'oeuvre 


Chefs-d'oeuvre 


Eau 


Eaux 


Monsieur 


Messieurs 


Madame 


Mesdames 


Plateau 


Plateaux 



Superficies 


Odds 


Swine 


Bellows 


Vermin 


Shad 


Pike 


Trout 



Aborigines 

Annals 

Antipodes 

Apocrypha 

Archives 



Forceps 

Graminivora 

Grallae 

Headquarters 

Hustinsrs 



Pantaloons 

Pinchers 

Passeres 

Paraphernalia 

Biches 



84 



A complete: scientific grammar 



Ashes 


Hemorrhoids 


Remains 


Assets 


Herbivora 


Regalia 


Banns 


Ides 


Scissors 


Belleslettres 


Insectivora 


Shears 


Billiards 


Intestines 


Spatterdashes 


Bowels 


Inwards 


Statistics 


Breeches 


Lees 


Sporades 


Bitters 


Matins 


Tidings 


Calends 


Mammalia 


Tongs 


Clothes 


Nippers 


Trousers 


Carnivora 


Nones 


Teens 


Credentials 


Nuptials 


Vespers 


Drawers (a garment) 


Omnivora 


Victuals 


Dregs 


Obsequies 


Vitals 


Embers 


Overalls 


Withers 


Entrails 






2.-N0TJNS PLUR 


AT. IN FORM, BUT SINGULAR 11 




SENSE. 




Alms 


Harmonics 


Numismatics 


Acoustics 


Hysterics 


News 


Amends 


Mathematics 


Optics 


Billiards 


Measles 


Physics 


Dynamics 


Mechanics 


Phonetics 


Ethics 


Mallows 


Politics 


Gallows 


Metaphysics 


Pneumatics 


Gymnastics 


Melodies 


Statics 


Hydraulics 


Mnemonics 


Suds 


Hydrostatics 


Mumps 


Wages 


Humanics 


Molasses 


Yellows 


Humanities 






3-PLURALS HA^ 


riNQ SINGULAR F( 
ENT MEANING. 


ORMS OF DIFFER- 


Ashes 


Goggles 


Physics 


Arms 


Goods 


Piles 


Compasses 


Irons 


Pains 


Colors 


Letters 


Salts 


Corns 


Manners 


Snuffers 


Dominoes 


Means 


Ways 


Effects 


Morals 




3d MOD 


E OF INFLECTION. 


-CASE, 


Case is a Mode o 


f Inflection used to i 


jbow the relation of 


a word to another ^a 


rordi. 





OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA GE. 85 

A Possessive Case of a Noun is a form of it made to 
be used as a modifier of some other Noun. 

RULES FOR FORMING THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 

1. Add '5 to the Stem, either Singular or Plural. 

2. If the Plural Stem ends with s, add ' only. (See Note 

10.) 

3. In a Compound Noun, inflect the last component only. 

DECLENSION. 
Declension is the complete Inflection of a word. 
To Decline a "Word is to give all its forms in system- 
atic order. 

PARADIGMS. 

1. Declension of the Noun Author. (Full Noun.) 

Singular Number. Plural Nuniber. 

Masculine ( Stem. Author 

n\ X 



Gender, i Poss. Case. Author's 



Stem. Authors 

Poss. Case. Authors' 



Feminine C Stem. Authoress 

Gender, i Poss. Case. Authoress's 



Stem. Authoresses 

Poss. Case. Authoresses' 



2. Declension of the Noun Child. (Defective Noun.) 

Singular. Plural. 



Stem. Child 

Poss. Case. Child's 



Stem. Children 

Poss. Case. Children's 

3. Declension of the Noun Deer. (Defective Noun.) 

Stem. Deer 

Poss. Case. Deer's 

EXERCISES. 

1. Joseph recited a very long lesson in a very creditable manner, 
Josephine and Jaqueline are studying Astronomy. 

Deer and sheep are very timid animals. 

The Science of Phonetics is important to those who study lan- 
guages. 
Fish and fowl are abundant in the northern regions. 
Some fishes and some fowls are excellent for food. 
Simeon, Levi, and Susan are studying Mathematics. 
Pneumatics is an important branch of Natural Philosophy. 

2. Theodore was idle ; and by this means he lost his position. 

The sword and chapeau of Gen. Lyon are in the Atheneura at 
Hartford. 



86 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

Some extremely ingenious Automata were invented. 
Circles, Ellipses, Parabolas, and Hyperbolas are called Conic Sec- 
tions. 
From these data one arrives at no other conclusion. 
Such Phenomena are of extremely rare occurrence. 
Edwin's father requested of him an account of his studies. 
Mary's sister Eliza came for her yesterday. 
3. Some men's consciences are often troublesome to them. 
John Smith's relatives are found in almost every place. 
The boys' hats were left hanging in the ante-room. 
James's knowledge of Optics was surprising to them. 
William Cullen Bryant's poetry is of a very high order. 
His conscience's voice was then no longer heard. 
In time of war churches are often converted into hospitals. 
The w^eight of the boxes was so great that it excited suspicion. 
A series of careful experiments threw much light on the subject. 
Several congeries of facts established his guilt beyond doubt. 

*4th MODE OF INFLECTION.-GEADE. 

Grade is a Mode of Inflection used to distinguish mag- 
nitudes. 

1 . Normal Forms are those indicating average mag- 
nitudes. 

2. Dim.inutive Forms are those denoting less than 
average magnitudes. 

3. Aug-m-entative Formis are those denoting more 
than average magnitudes. 

DIMINUTIVES. 

Form.ation. Diminutives are formed by changing the 
vowel of the Normal Form (General Stem) to i, as " top '', 
"tip"; or by adding a diminutive termination, as "hill", 
"hillock"; &c. 

The Dim.inutive Term.inations are ule, cule^ le, cle^ 
Mn, ing^ ling, ot, ette, et^ el^ ock^ ze, and /e^. 

Patronym.ics are Nouns denoting family descent, some 
of which are Diminutives, as " Elising ", "Atheling ", &c. ; 
and some are Compounds. 

Endearants are Diminutives denoting aiFection, as 
"Willie", "doggie", &c. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA GE. 87 

AUGMENTATIVES. 

Formation. Augmentatives are formed by adding 
terminations to the Normal Stem, as " ball ", " balloon " ; &g. 

The Augmentative Terminations are ard^ artj 
one, oon, ion^ orij ody et, ock, and ass (asse, ace, ess). 

SPECIES OF GRADE-S. 

1. Diminution is the formation of Diminutives. 

2. Augmentation is the formation of Augmentatives. 

3. Double Grade is the formation of both Diminutives 
and Augmentatives from the same Normal Stem. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Diminution. Cat, kit ; stock, stick ; sup, sip ; lock, locket; poke, 
pocket ; eye, eyelet ; lamb, lambkin ; goose, gosling. 

2. Augmentation. Card, cartoon ; rat, rattoon ; hall, saloon ; galley, 
galleon ; musket, musketoou. 

3. Double Grade. Ball, ballot, balloon ; cycle, eyelet, cyclone ; lake, 
lakelet, lagoon ; trump, trumpet, trombone ; medal, medalet, medallion ; 
mantle, pantelet, pantaloon. 

DIMINUTIVE FORMS. 

1. Bit, fib, pill, pick, chick, rill, trill, snip, snib, sniff, squib, nib, nip, 
sip. 

2. Bullet, pellet, clarionette, socket, bucket, planchet, target, hatchet, 
mallet, bracket, jacket, placket, thicket, ticket, wicket, pricket, brocket, 
trinket, basket, wisket, whisket, casket, tablet, driblet, circlet, giblet, 
bracelet, mantelet, eaglet, ringlet, wallet, rillet, samlet, gimblet, pistol- 
et, chaplet, droplet, harslet, fortlet, rivulet, signet, cygnet, cabinet, 
sonnet, canzonet, cornet, skippet, sippet, puppet, floret, floweret, arbor- 
et, ferret, turret, tabret, closet, paroquet, rosette, palette, falconette, 
lunette, bankette, coquette, grisette. 

3. Granule, plumule, plantule, ovule, tabule, spatule, ferule, vestibule, 
reticule, globule, animalcule, nodule, glandule, schedule, formule, 
spherule, valvule, capsule. 

4. Mannikin, bodkin, napkin, pipkin, ladkin, ladykin, ciderkin ; Per- 
kins, Wilkins, Tompkins, Watkins, Hawkins, Jenkins, Hopkins, Simpkins, 
Fielding, Whiting, Browning. 

5. Pellicle, follicle, cornicle, funicle, tunicle, auricle, ventricle, pinna- 
cle, binnacle, tentacle, manacle, buckle, vessicle, versicle, canticle, par- 
ticle, clavicle, tubercle, arbuscle, parcel, pedicel, damsel, pickerel, 
squirrel, sorrel, timbrel, foundling, lordling, youngling, duckling, sap- 
ling, fopling, darling, nursling, witling, bantling, nestling, worldling, 
stripling (stirpling). 



ii 



88 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

AUGMENTATIVE FORMS. 

1. Harpoon, batoon, platoon, festoon, buffoon, raccoon, bassoon, car- 
doon, barracoon, doubloon, seroon, frigatoon, picaroon. 

2. Million, billion, trillion, &c., button, champion, tompion, piston, 
apron, falchion, trunchion, patron, matron, bastion, gabion, squadron 
gammon, chaperon, morion, barcon, cannon, pinion, pennon, talon, seton, 
trunnion, griffon. 

3. Paddoc, pollock, tussock, puttock, waddock, girrock. 

4. Braggart, drunkard, laggard, buzzard, reynard wizard, dotard. 

5. Owlet, hakod, hakot. 

6. Cuirass, mattrass, cutlass, crevasse, pailasse, galliass, morass, 
mattress, pinnace. 

INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS. 

Modes of Inflection.— 4. 

The Pronoun I has four Modes of Inflection, called 
Person, Number, Gender, and Case. 

The Pronouns One and Other have each two Modes 
of Inflection, called Number and Case. 

The Pronoun Who has one Mode of Inflection, called 
Case. 

The other Pronouns have no Inflection. 

1st MODE OF INFLECTION. -PERSON. 

Person is a Mode of Inflection used to distinguish those 
speaking, those spoken to, and those spoken of. 

Forms of the 1st Person are forms denoting those 
speaking. 

Forms of the 2nd Person are forms denoting those 
spoken to. 

Forms of the 3d Person are forms denoting those 
spoken of. 

The First Person of a Pronoun is the aggregate of its 
Forms of the First Person. 

The Second Person of a Pronoun is the aggregate of 
its Forms of the Second Person. 

The Third Person of a Pronoun is the aggregate of 
its Forms of the Third Person. 



OF THE ENGLIBE: LANG UA GE, 89 

2nd MODE OF INFLECTION.— NUMBER. 

Number is a Mode of Inflection used to distinguish 
Unity from Plurality. 

A Singular Form of a Pronoun is one designed to 
represent a Singular Form of a Noun. 

The Singular Number of a Pronoun is the aggregate 
of its Singular Forms, 

A Plural Form of a Pronoun is one designed to repre- 
sent a Plural Form of a JnTouu, or a Collection of Nouns. 

The Plural Number of a Pronoun is the aggregate 
of its Plural Forms. 

3d MODE OF INFLECTION.— GENDER. 

Gender is a Mode of Inflection used to distinguish the 
sexes. 

A Masculine Form of a Pronoun is one designed to 
represent a Masculine Noun or a Masculine Form of a 
Noun. 

The Masculine Gender of a Pronoun is the aggregate 
of its Masculine Forms. 

A Feminine Form of a Pronoun is one designed to 
represent a Feminine Noun or a Feminine Form of a Noun. 

The Feminine Gender of a Pronoun is the aggregate 
of its Feminine Forms. 

A Neuter Form of a Pronoun is one designed to re- 
present a Neuter Noun. 

The Neuter Gender of a Pronoun is the aggregate of 
its Neuter Forms. 

4th MODE OF INFLECTION.— CASE. 

Case is a Mode of Inflection used to show the relation 
of a word to another word. 

A Nominative Case of a Pronoun is a form of it de- 
signed to be used as the Subject of a Sentence. 

A Possessive Case of a Pronoun is a form of it de- 
signed to be used as a Modifier of a Noun. 

An Objective Case of a Pronoun is a form of it de- 
signed to be used as the Object of a Verb or Preposition. 



90 



A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 



Declension of the Pronoun /. 

Singular. Plural, 





' Nom. Case. 


I 


Nom. 


We 


1st Person. 


' Poss. Case. 
Obj. Case. 


(My 

\ Mine 


Poss. 


Our 




Me 


Obj. 


Us 




f Nom. 


Thou 


Nom. 


Ye 


2nd Person. 


. Poss. 


(Thy 
c Thine 


Poss, 


Your 




. Obj. 


Thee 


Obj. 


You 


g^ f Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut. 






T, Nom. 
Person J 

Poss, 


He 


She 


Stem. It 


Nom. 


They 


His 


Her 


Poss. Its 


Poss. 


Their 


LObj. 


Him 


(Hera) 




Obj. 


Them 



i 



The Form Hem is an old Obj. Case of the 3d Person, 
which is now obsolete, — its place being supj)lied by the 
Poss. Her. (See N"ote 11.) 

The Pronouns One and Other are declined like 
Nouns. 

Declension of the Pronoun Who. 

Nom. Who 

Poss. Whose 

Obj. Whom 

The Form Whose is also used sometimes as a Posses- 
sive case for Which, What, or That. 

EXERCISES. 

1. He went with them to see their friends in the city. 

2. They were much pleased with his company. 

3. You will find your books upon the desk. 

4. Ye are the light of the world. 

5. His lessons are well prepared ; but theirs are neglected. 

6. She left her music upon the Piano. 

7. They found it when they came into the room. 

8. These papers certainly belong to him. 

9. I met him in the street in company with his friend. 

10. My pretended friends have deserted me in my affliction. 

11. Who will undertake to solve this problem 1 

12. The man -"vhose house was burned has built another. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 91 

13. Thou art gone to thy grave, as thy fathers before thee. 

14. The phantom is gone, and its terrors gone with it. 

15. We were delighted with our visit, and with the attentions paid to 
us. 

16. Whoever observes these rules is sure of success. 

17. Whosoever will, let him take the water of life freely. 
.18. He giveth it to whomsoever he will. 

19. He appointeth over it whomsoever he will. 

20. The rewards were given to such as appeared worthy. 

21. They heard what was said, and refrained from what they were 
doing. 

22. Whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap. 

23. Whosesoever sins ye remit, they are remitted unto them. 

INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES. 
Modes of Inflection. The Modes of Inflection of ad- 
jectives are three, called Grade, Comparison, and Number; 
but no one Adjective is inflected in all the Modes. 

1st MODE OF INFLECTION-GRADE. 

Grade is a Mode of Inflection used to distinguish similar 
qualities. 

Normal Forms are those expressing distinct qualities. 

Diminutive Forms are those expressing subordinate 
or indistinct qualities. 

Formation. Diminutives are formed by adding ish to 
the Normal Stem, as '' white ", *' whitish " ; &c. 

Limitation. This Mode of Inflection belongs only to 
some Qualitative Adjectives. 

2iid MODE OF INFLECTION— COMPARISON. 

Comparison is a Mode of Inflection used to distinguish 
degrees of quality. 

The Positive Degree of a word is the same as its 
General Stem. 

The Comparative Degree is formed by adding er to 
the Positive, and making the changes required by the Rules 
for Spelling. (Rules 6, 8, 10, 11, and 12.) 

The Superlative Degree is formed by adding est to 
the Positive, and making the changes required by the Rules 
for Spelling. (Rules 6, 8, 10, 11, and 12.) 



92 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

Limitation of Comparison. This Mode of Inflection 
belongs only to Qaalitative Adjectives. 

EXAMPLES OF COMPARISON. 

Pos. Deg. Large i Pos. Early 

Com. Deg. Larger ' Cora. Earlier 

Sup. Deg. Largest | Sup. Earliest 



Pos. Immature 
Cora. Immaturer 
Sup. Immaturest 



PERIPHRASTIC COMPARISON. 

Periphrastic Comparison is the formation of Com- 
paratives and Superlatives by prefixing Adverbs to the Pos- 
itive, instead of changing its termination. 

Ascending Periphrastic Comparison is the use 
of more and most to denote excess of the quality. 

Descending Periphrastic Comparison is the use 
of less and least to denote deficiency of the quality. 

Uses. The Periphrastic Comparison is used for Euphony 
in comparing long words, and sometimes for variety or em- 
phasis in comparing short ones. 

EXAMPLES OF PERIPHRASTIC COMPARISON. 



Pos. Illuminating 
Com. More Illuminating 
Sup. Most Illuminating 



Pos. Wise 
Cora. More Wise 
Sup. Most Wise 



Pos. Studious 
Cora. Less Studious 
Sup. Least Studious 

Comparison of Diminutives. Diminutives are com- 
pared by the Periphrastic method, as redish, more redish, 
most redish, &c. 

IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 

Irregular Comparison is that in which the Compara- 
tives and Superlatives are not regularly formed from the 
Positives. Of this there are four cases. 

1. Sometimes they are formed not from the Positives, but 
from other words now obsolete. 

2. Sometimes contraction has occurred in some of the 
forms. 

3. Sometimes the Superlative is formed by adding most 
instead of est, 

4. Sometimes one, or more, of the forms is wanting. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



93 



EXAMPLES OF IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 


Positive. 


Comparative. Superlative. 


Good 


Better 


Best (See Note 12.) 


Bad 

in 


Worse 


Worst 


Far 


Farther 


Farthest 


(Forth) 


Further 


Furthest 


Fore 


Former 


Foremost 
First 


Late 


Later 


Latest 
Last 


Much \ 
Many ) 


More 


Most 


Little 


Less 


Least 


Near 


Nearer 


Nearest 

Next 


Old 


( Older I 
( Elder i 


Oldest 


\J x.\X 


Eldest 


Hind 


Hinder 


\ Hindmost 
Hindermost 


In 


Inner \ ^^^^^^^ 

I Innermost 






- Outmost 


Out 


{ Outer 
\ Utter 


Outermost 


Utmost 






Uttermost 


Up 


Upper 


[ Upmost 
( Uppermost 




Under 
Hither 

Over 


TT n f1 f»r m n tsf". 








Overmost 


Aft 


After 


Aftermost 


(Neath) 


Nether 


Nethermost 


Yicwxfw 




T)nwnmost. 


Top 




Topmost 




North 




Mnrthmost 


Northern 




Northernmost 


South 




Sonthmost 


Southern 




kJV/ IX uxxxxx\_/o u 

Southernmost 



Note. The words in italics in the above list are compar- 
ative in form, but sometimes positive in sense. 

The Latin Comparatives interior, exterior, superior, 



94 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

ifcc, are used as postives, and are compared periphrasti- 
cally. 

3d MODE OF Ilf FLECTION. -NUMBER. 

Number is a Mode of Inflection used to distinguish 
unity from plurality. 

Tlie Words this and that have the plural forms these 

and those ; and they are the only Adjectives having this 

Mode of Inflection. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Sweet, sweetest, sweetish, more sweet, least sweety less sourish, 

most sourish, bluer, more blue, least blue, more bluish, less 
bluish, bluest, indiscreetish more indiscreetish, less indiscreet. 

2. Great and costly houses are not always the abodes of happiness. 
This farm is larger than that, but not so productive. 

These books are better than those, and also much cheaper. 
This being admitted, there needs no further argument. 
The house is situated on the farther side of the river. 
Learning is valuable ; prudence is more valuable ; and virtue is 

more valuable still. 
The next man lost his money, even to the last cent. 

3. Short, shorter, shorter yet my breath I drew. 

The utmost diligence is required in such investigations. 
The army lay encamped on the hither side of the mountain. 
The old homestead descended to the eldest son. 
They penetrated the innermost recesses of the dismal cavern. 
The party reached the northernmost limit of actual discovery. 
The tempting fruit was hanging on the topmost boughs. 

4. His opinions were more carefully expressed than those of the 

other man, and seemed less open to adverse criticism. 
The most superior abilities are of little advantage to a man, unless 

he is endowed with firm moral principles. 
These specimens are more inferior than the others were. 
The less inferior kinds were exhausted long since. 
The interior should not be neglected for the sake of adorning the 
exterior. 

INFLECTION OF VERBS. 
Modes of Inflection. The Modes of Inflection of 
Verbs are five, called Tense, Number, Person, Diminution 
and Frequentation. 

1st MODE OF INFLECTION.— TENSE. 
Tense is a Mode of Inflection used to indicate time. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 95 

A Tense is a set of verbal forms indicating the same 
time. 

Regular Tenses are those formed without auxiliaries. 

Periphrastic Tenses are those formed by means of 
Auxiliary Verbs. 

REGULAR TENSES. 

Present Forms are those indicating present time. 

The Present Tense of a verb is the aggregate of its 
present forms. 

The Stem of a Tense is the first or principal form of it. 

The Stem of the Present Tense is the General 
Stem of the Yerb. 

Past Forms are those indicating past time. 

The Past Tense of a verb is the aggregate of its past 
forms. 

The Stem of the Past Tense is formed regularly by 
adding ed to the Present Stem, and making the changes re- 
quired by the Rules for Spelling. (Rules 6, 8, 10, 11, and 
12). 

PERIPHRASTIC TENSES. 

The Auxiliaries used are the present forms c7o, shall^ 
willy have, may, can, must, — and the past forms did, had, 
might, could, loould, and should. 

The Periphrastic Present Stem is formed by placing 
do before the General Stem. 

The Periphrastic Past Stem is formed by placing 
did before the General Stem. 

The Other Tenses are all periphrastic. 

Future -Forms are those indicating future time. 

The Future Tense of a Verb is the aggregate of its 
future forms. 

The Future Stem is formed by placing shall or will be- 
fore the general Stem. 

Indefinite Forms are those indicating indefinite time- 

The Indefinite Tense of a verb is the aggregate of 
its indefinite forms. 

The Indefinite Stem is formed by placing may, can, 



96 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

must, might, could, would, or should, before the General 
Stem. 

PARTICIPLES. 

The Present Participle is always formed by adding 
ing to the General Stem, and making the changes required 
by the Rules for Spelling. (See Rules 8 and 9.) 

The Past Participle in Regular Verbs is like the Stem 
of the Past Tense ; in Irregular Verbs the form is various, 
and must be learned from the Table. 

The Compound Participle is formed by placing the 
word having before the Past Participle. (See Note 19.) 

COMPOUND TENSES. 

The Compound Tenses are those whose stems are 
formed by placing Auxiliaries before the Past Participle. 

The Simple Tenses are those whose stems are not so 
formed. 

Compound Present Forms are those used in refer- 
ence to some period of time i3artially expired, as the pres- 
ent day, week, &c. 

The Compound Present Tense of a verb is the 
aggregate of its Compound Present Forms. 

The Compound Present Stem is formed by placing 
the word have before the Past Participle. 

Compound Past Forms are those used in reference 
to a past time preceding some other past time mentioned. 

The Compound Past Tense of a Verb is the aggre- 
gate of its Compound Past Forms. 

The Compound Past Stem is formed by placing the 
word had before the Past Participle. 

Compound Future Forms are those used in reference 
to a future time preceding some other future time men- 
tioned. 

The Compound Future Tense of a Verb is the ag- 
gregate of its Compound Future Forms. 

The Compound Future Stem is formed by placing 
shall have, or will have, before the Past Participle. 

Compound Indefinite Forms are Compound Forms 
used in reference to indefinite time. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG ITAGE. 97 

The Compound Indefinits Tense of a verb is the 
aggregate of its Compound Indefinite Forms. 

The Compound Indefinite Stem is formed by 
placing ma^ have, can have, &c., before the Past Participle. 

EXAMPLES. 

They wait. He waited. I do wait. You did wait, James will wait. 
We must wait. Tliey have waited to-day. She had waited long before 
they came. You will have waited an hour before he will arrive. They 
may have waited long already. They may have waited long before 
he came. They may have waited long before he will arrive. 

2iid MODE OF INFLECTION. -NUMBER. 

Number is a Mode of Inflection used to show the Num- 
ber of the Subject of the Verb. 

A Singular Form of a Verb is one made to be used 
with a singular subject. 

The Singular Number of a Tense is the aggregate 
of its singular forms. 

A Plural Form is one made to be used with a plural 
subject. 

The Plural Number of a Tense is the aggregate of 
its plural forms. 

Plural Forms in use. l^o plural forms are used in 
any Tense, — the Tense Stem, which is neither singular nor 
plural, being always used instead. 

Singular Forms in use. Two singular forms are 
used in the Present Tense, two in the Compound Present, 
and one in each of the other tenses. 

3d MODE OF INFLECTION.-PERSON. 

Person is a Mode of Inflection used to show the Person 
of the Subject of the Yerb. 

A Form of the Isfc Person is one used only with a 
Subject of the 1st Person. 

A Form of the 3nd Person is one used only with a 
Subject of the 2nd Person. 

A Form of the 3d. Person is one used 07%ly with a 
Subject of the 3d Person. 

Forms of the 1st Person used. No Form of the 1st 
Person is used, — the Tense Stem being always used instead. 



98 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

Forms of the 2nd. Person used. One Singular Form 
of the 2nd Person is used in each Tense. (See Note 13.) 

Forms of the 3d Person used. One Singular Form 
of the 3d Person is used in the Present Tense, and one in 
the Compound Present Tense ; in each of the other Tenses 
the Stem is used instead of such a form. 

Formation of the 2nd Person. The 2nd Person 
of the Singular N^ umber is formed in the Regular Tenses, by- 
adding est to the Tense Stem, and making the changes 
required by the Rules for Spelling. (Rules 6, 8, 10, 11, and 
12.) (See Note 13.) In the Periphrastic Tenses the termi- 
nation est is added to the Auxiliary ; and that is then con- 
tracted according to its own peculiarity. 

Formation of the 3d Person. The 3d Person of the 
Singular Number is formed in the Regular Present Tense, 
by adding es or eth to the Tense Stem, and then contracting 
according to the Rules for Spelling. In the Periphrastic 
Present, and in the Compound Present, the termination 
is added to the Auxiliary ; and that is then contracted. 

The Terminations eth and es are substantially the 

same, the second being derived from the first by a slight 

change. 

INFINITIVE FOEMS. 

Infinitives are forms used for abbreviating sentences. 

The Simple Infinitive is formed by placing ^Ho'^ be- 
fore the General Stem. 

The Compound Infinitive is formed by placing " to 
have " before the Past Participle. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

The Principal Parts of a Verb are the Present Stem, 
the Past Stem, and the Past Participle. 

Reason for the Name. These parts are called Prin- 
cipal, because all the other parts of the Yerb are formed 
from them. 

STRONG AND WEAK VERBS. 

Strong Verbs are those which form their Past Stem 
without any addition to the Present Stem, as "write", 
" wrote " ; &c. 



OF THE ENGLISH LAITGUAGE. 



99 



"Weak Verbs are those requiring some addition to the 
Present Stem to form the Past Stem, as " flee "," fled " ; 
'^ keep '\ " kept " ; "call ", " called " ; &g. 



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p. (a 
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PM 


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100 



A COMPLETE SCIEN'TIFIG GRAMMAR 



CONJUGATION. 
Conjugation is the joining (yoking together) of the forms 
of the Yerb and the Pronouns they ought to accompany. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB MOVE. 



Present Tense. 
Stem. 
I, We, Ye, ) 
You, or They f"^^"^® 

Singular. 
3nd Per. Thou movest 
3d Per. He, She, or It moves, or moveth 



Indefinite Tense. 
Stem. 



I, He, She, It, i 

We, Ye, You, or Thej' \ 

Singular. 
Slid Per. Thou mayest move 



may move 



Compound Present Tense. 
Stem. 
I, We, Ye, ) 
You, or They) ^^^^^™°^^^ 
Singular. 
2nd Per. Thou hast moved 
3d Per. He, She, or It has or hath moved 



Past Tense. 


Compound Past Tense. 


Stem. 


Stem. 


I, He, She, It, i 

We, Ye, You, or They r°^°^^^ 

Singular. 
2nd Per. Thou movedst 


I, He, She, It, , 

We, Ye, You, or They ] ^""^ °^^^^^ 

Singular. 
2nd Per. Thou hadst moved 


Future Tense. 


Compound Future Tense. 


Stem. 


Stem. 


I, He, She, It, I 

We, Ye, You, or They \ ^^^" °^°^® 


I, He, She, It, i 

We, Ye, You, or They [ '^^" ^^^® "'^^^'^ 


Singular. 


Singular. 


2nd Per. Thou shalt move 


2nd Per. Thou shalt have moved 



Compound Indefinite Tense. 
Stem. 



I, He, She, It, 



1, xie, &ne, n, j 

We, Ye, You, or They [""^y ^^^^ ^°^^^ 

Singular. 
2nd Per. Thou mayest have moved 

SUMMARY OF THE CONJUGATION. 

1. The Stem of each Tense, except the Present and Comp. 
Present, is used with any Nominative Case of the Pronoun, 
except Thou. 

2. The Second Person of the Singular Number of each 
Tense is used with Thou. 

3. In the Pres. and Comp. Present Tenses, the Third Per- 
son of the Singular Number is used with He^ She, or It. 

4. The 3d Person of the Sing. Num. is also used with a Sin- 
gular Noun, or with a Relative or Indefinite Pronoun repre- 
senting a Singular Noun. 

5. The Stem of each Tense, except the Present and Comp. 
Present, is used as the 3d Per. of the Sing. Number is used in 
those two Tenses. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



101 



6. In every Tense, the Stem is used with a Plural Noun, 
or with any Pronoun representing a Plural Noun. 

DECLENSION OF THE IRREGULAR VERB WRITE. 
Principal Parts. 

Pres., Write Past, Wrote P. Part , Written 





Participles. 


Infinitives. 


Pres. Writing 

Past, Written 

Comp., Having written 


Simple, To Write 
Comp. To have written 


Simple Tenses. 


Compound Tenses. 


Present 
Tense. 


Stem, Write 
1 2nd Per. Writest 
^™^- 1 3d Per, Writes -eth 


Stem, Have written 
I 2nd Per. Hast written 
^^°°- 1 3d Per. Has (or hath) written 


Past Stem, Wrote 
Tense. Sing. 2nd Per. Wrotest 


Stem, Had written 
Sing. 2nd Per. Hadst written 


Future 
Tense. 


Stem, Shall write 
Sing. 2nd Per. Shalt write 


Stem, Shall have written 
Sing. 2d Per. Shalt have written 


Indefinite 
Tense. 


Stem, May write 
Sing. 2nd Per. Mayest write 


Stem, May have written 
Sing. 2nd Per. Mayest have written 



PERIPHRASTIC PRESENT AND PAST TENSES. 



Present Tense. 
Stem, Do write 
( 2nd Per. Dost write 
^^S- I 3d Per. Does (or doth) write 



Past Tense. 
Stem, Did write 
Sing. 2nd Per. Didst write 



Use of the Periphrastic Present and Past Tenses. 

These Periphrastic Tenses are more forcible than the regu- 
lar Tenses, and, hence, are used for emphasis, and some- 
times for variety. 

SHALL AND WILL. 

The Auxiliaries Shall and Will both form a Future 
Tense ; but they must not be used indiscriminately. 

Use. They sometimes merely indicate future time ; and 
they sometimes also indicate authority or determination in 
the speaker. 

INDICATIVE AND POTENTIAL FUTURE. 

The Indicative Future is the Future Tense merely 
indicating futurity. 

The Potential Future is the Future Tense indicating 
futurity and authority. 

The Indicative Future is formed by using " Shall " 
with a Subject of the First Person, or " Will" with a Sub- 
ject of the Second or Third Person. 



102 



A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 



The Potential Future is formed by using " Shall " 
with a Subject of the Second or Third Person, or '* Will" 
with a Subject of the First Person. 

PARADIGM. 



Indicative Future. 
I shall write We shall write 

Thou wilt write Ye will write 
He will write They will write 



Potential Future. 
I will write We will write 

Thou shalt write Ye shall write 
He shall write They shall write 

INFLECTION OF THE COPULA. 
Contrast of Copula and Verb. The Copula is like 
a Verb, except that it has a 1st Person Singular, and a du- 
plicate 2nd Per. Sing, in the Present Tense, — has Plural 
Forms in the Present and Past Tenses, — has a Hypothetical 
Tense, — and has no Periphrastic Present or Past Tense. 

The Hypothetical Tense is a remnant of a former 
Mode of Inflection of the Copula and of Verbs, called Mood, 
— of which there are now but few traces in the language. 
Former Inflection of Verbs. Verbs formerly had 
a 1st Person Singular in the Present and Compound Pres. 
Tenses, — and Plural Forms in all the Tenses. 
DECLENSION OF THE COPULA. 
Principal Parts. 

Pres , Be and Am Past, Was P. Part., Been 



Participles. 



Present, Being 
Past, Been 
Comp. Having been 


Simple Tenses. 


Present 
Tense. 


Stem, B 
Sing. 
1st Per. Am 

( Art, or 
2ndPer.iB^ggt 
3d Per. Is 


Plural. 
Are 


Past 
Tense. 


Sing. 
Stem, Was 
2nd Per. Wast 


Plural. 
Were 


Future 
Tense. 


Stem, Shall 
Sing. 2nd Per. Sh< 


be 
lit be 


Indefinite Stem, May 
Tense. Sing. 2nd Per. Ma 


be 
yest be 



Hypotliet- 1 
ical Tense 



Stem, Were 
Sing. 2nd Per. Wert 



Inflnitives. 



Simple, To be 
Comp. To have been 



Compound Tenses. 



Stem, Have been 
( 2nd Per. Hast been 
^^^^"i 3d Per. Has been 



Stem, Had been 
Sing. 2nd Per. Hadst been 



Stem, Shall have been 
Sins:. 2nd Per. Shalt have been 



Stem, May have been 
Sing 2nd Per. Mayest have been 



The Compound Past Tense is used 
also as a Compound Hypothetical Tense. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 



103 



EXERCISES. 

1. Believe, Believed, Believing, Having believed, Believest, Believeth, 
Believes, Believedst, Shall believe, Shalt believe. Will believe. Wilt be- 
lieve. May believe, Mayest believe. Can believe. Canst believe, Must be- 
lieve. Might believe, Mightest believe. Could believe, Couldst believe, 
Would believe, Wouldst believe. Should believe, Shouldst believe. To 
believe, To have believed. Have believed, Hadst believed, Has believed. 

2. Had believed, Hadst believed. Shall have believed, Shalt have be- 
lieved. May have believed, Mayest have believed. Can have believed. 
Canst have believed. Must have believed. Might have believed, Mightst 
have believed. Could have believed, Couldst have believed. Would have 
believed, Wouldst have believed, Should have believed, Shouldst have 
believed, Do believe, Dost believe. Does believe, Didst believe. 

3. Be, Am, Was, Wast, Been, Being, Having been. Art, Is, Are, Were, 
Shall be, Shalt be. Wilt be, Mayest be, Couldst be. Hast been. Has 
been, Hadst been, Shalt have been. Must have been, Wert, Have been. 
Could have been, Couldst have been, Would have been, Should have 
been, Shouldst have been. 

IRREGULAR VERBS. 

DIVISION 1st —HAVING NO REGULAR FORMS. 

SECTION 1st.— PAST TENSE AND PAST PARTICIPLE 

ALIKE. 
Class 1st.— No Change in the Present Stem to form the other 

Principal Parts, 
Present Tense {Stem). Past Tense {Stem). Past Participle. 



Burst 


burst 


burst 


Cast 


cast 


cast 


Cost 


cost 


cost 


Cut 


cut 


cut 


Hit 


hit 


hit 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


Let 


let 


let 


Put 


put 


put 


Rid 


rid 


rid 


Set 


set 


set 


Shed 


shed 


shed 


Shred 


shred 


shred 


Shut 


shut 


shut 


Spit 


spit 


spit 


Split 


split 


split 


Spread 


spread 


spread 


Thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


Wet 


wet 


wet 



104 



A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC CBAMMAR 



Class 2nd —A Chang^e in the Vowel of the Present Stem. 

Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Participle. 



Abide 


abode 


abode 


Bind 


bound 


bound 


Bleed 


bled 


bled 


Breed 


bred 


bred 


Cling 


clung 


clung 


Drink 


drank 


drank 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Fight 


fought 


fought 


Find 


found 


found 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Grind 


gi-ound 


ground 


Hold 


held 


held 


Lead 


led 


led 


Meet 


met 


met 


Read 


read 


read 


Sit 


sat 


sat 


Shoot 


shot 


shot 


SHng 


slung 


slung 


Slink 


slunk 


slunk 


Speed 


sped 


sped 


Spin 


spun 


spun 


Stick 


stuck 


stuck 


Sting 


stung 


stung 


String 


strung 


strung 


^wing 


swung 


swung 


Win 


won 


won 


Wind 


wound 


wound 


Wring 


wrung 


wrung 



Class 3d.— Change in the Final Consonant of the Present Stem. 

Have had had 

Lend lent lent 

Make made made 

Rend rent rent 

Send sent sent 

Spend spent spent 

Wis wist wist 

Class 4th. — Change in both Vowel and Consonant of the Pres- 
ent Stem. 

Beseech besought besought 

Bring brought brought 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 



105 



Buy 


bought 


bought 


Creep 


crept 


crept 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Hear 


heard 


heard 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Leave 


left 


left 


Lose 


lost 


lost 


Mean 


meant 


meant 


Seek 


sought 


sought 


Sell 


sold 


sold 


Shoe 


shod 


shod 


Sleep 


slept 


slept 


Stand 


stood 


stood 


Sweep 


swept 


swept 


Teach 


taught 


taught 


Tell 


told 


told 


Think 


thought 


thought 


Weep 


wept 


wept 


SECTION 2nd.— PAST TENSE AND PAST PAT? 



DIFFERENT. 

Class 5th.— Present Tense and Past Participle Alike. 



Come 


came 


come 


Run 


ran 


run 


Class Gth.- 


-Principal Parts all Different. 


Blow 


blew 


blown 


Break 


broke 


broken 


Choose 


chose 


chosen 


Do 


did 


done 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Eat 


ate 


eaten 


Fall 


fell 


fallen 


Fly 


flew 


flown 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Give 


gave 


given 


Go 


went 


gone 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Know 


knew 


known 


Lie (to recline) 


lay 


lain 


Rise 


rose 


risen 



106 



A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 



See 






saw 




seen 


Shake 






shook 




shaken 


Slay 






slew 




slain 


Steal 






stole 




stolen 


Stride 






strode 




stridden 


Strive 






strove 




striven 


Swear 






swore 




sworn 


Take 






took 




taken 


Tear 






tore 




torn 


Throw 






threw 




thrown 


Wear 






wore 




worn 


Write 






wrote 




written 


Class 7th. 


—Duplicate 


Forms in 


Past Tense. 


Begin 






began or begun 


begun 


Ring 






rang or 


rung 


rung 


Shrink 






shrank 


or shrunk 


shrunk 


Sing 






sang or 


sung 


sung 


Spring 






sprang 


or sprung 


sprung 


Swim 






swam or swum 


swum 


Glass 


8th.- 


-Duplicate Forms in Past Participle. 


Bear 






bore 




borne or born 


Beat 






beat 




beat or beaten 


Bite 






bit 




bit or bitten 


Chide 






chid 




chid or chidden 


Get 






got 




got or gotten 


Hide 






hid 




hid or hidden 


Ride 






rode 




rode or ridden 


Slide 






slid 




slid or slidden 


Smite 






smote 




smit or smitten 


Speak 






spoke 




spoke or spoken 


Strike 






struck 




struck or stricken 


Tread 






trod 




trod or trodden 


Weave 






wove 




wove or woven 


Class 9th.- 


■Duplicates 


in both Past Tense and Past Participle 


Bid 






bid or 


bade 


bid or bidden 



Cleave (to split) clove or cleft cleft or cloven 

Sink sank or sunk sunk or sunken 

(This Division includes about 130 simple verbs.) 



OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



107 



DIVISION 2nd. -HAVING REGULAR FORMS. 

SECTION Ist-PAST TENSE AND PAST PARTICIPLE 

ALIKE, 
Class 1st, R. — Same as Class 1st in Division 1st, except the 

Regular Forms. 

Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Participle. 

Befc bet bet 

Knit knit knit 

Quit quit quit 

Slit slit slit 

Sweat sweat sweat 

Whet whet whet 

Class 2nd, R. — Same as Class 2nd, Div. 1st, except the Regular 

Forms. 

Awake awoke awoke 

Dig dug dug 

Dive dove dove 

Hang hung hung 

Heave hove hove 

Light lit lit 

Shine shone shone 

Stave stove stove 

Class 3d, R. — Same as Class 3d, Div. 1st, except the Regular 

Forms. 



Bend bent 

Blend blent 

Build built 

Burn burnt 

Dwell dwelt 

Gild gilt 

Gird girt 

Lay laid 

Learn learnt 

Pay paid 

Pen (to inclose) pent 

Say said 

Spell spelt 

Spill spilt 

Spoil spoilt 



bent 

blent 

built 

burnt 

dwelt 

gilt 

girt 

laid 

learnt 

paid 

pent 

said 

spelt 

spilt 

spoilt 



Class 4th. R. — Same as Class 4th, Div. 1st, except the Regular 

Forms. 

Bereave bereft bereft 

Catch caught caught 



108 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC QBAMMAB 

Clothe clad clad 

Deal dealt dealt 

Dream dreamt dreamt 

Kneel knelt knelt 

Class 6th, R. — Same as Class 6tli, Div. 1st, except the Regular 

Forms. 

Seethe sod sodden 

Thrive throve thriven 

SECTION 2nd.-PAST TENSE AND PAST PARTICIPLE 

DIFFERENT 

Class lOth, R.— Irregular Past Tense Wanting. 

Freight fraught 

Grave graven 

Hew hewn 

Lade (to load) laden 

Mow ■■■■ mown 

Rive riven 

Saw sawn. 

Shape shapen 

Shave shaven 

Shear shorn 

Show shown 

Sow sown 

Strow strown 

Swell swollen 

Work wrought 

Class 11th, R.— Irregular Past Participle Wanting, 

Crow crew 

Dare (to venture) durst 

(This Division embraces about 54 simple verbs.) 

Compounds (such as overtake, <fcc.) are inflected in the 
same manner as the simple verbs of which they are formed, 
except Welcome and Behave, which are regular. 

DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

Present Tense, Past Tense, Past Participle. 

Shall Should 

Will Would 

May Might 

Can Could 

Must 

Ought 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 109 

Quoth 



Wit i 

Wot J 

Will and Can as Principal Verbs are regular. 

Shall and Will, as auxiliaries, have a future signifi- 
cation. 

May and Can are indefinite, referring either to present 
or future time. 

Wit is used only in the Infinitive form To wit. 

Wot is nearly obsolete. 

The Past Tenses of the Defective Yerbs, except Quoth,, 
are indefinite, referring to past, present, or future time. 

Quoth has a past signification, and is-singular. 

EXERCISES. 

1. He has set a stake at the corner of the lot. They took the meas- 
ure of the building. We shall go to-morrow. He went to-day. She 
sat by the window. We will maintain our rights. He shall not es- 
cape from justice. They shall obey the laws. I will not consent. 
Thou shalt not steal. Thou wilt never return. He v/ill retire. We do 
you to wit of the grace of God. I see, quoth he, a wondrous sign. We 
wot not what is become of him. 

2. They wist not that it was he. The wind bloweth where it listeth. 
Thou canst not live in such a place. The ship was laden with lumber. 
I have not seen him. These rocks have lain in their present position 
many years ; and they may lie there many years longer. They are all 

gone from the mountain home. They have gone to the city. He laid 
the book upon the table. They began to seek for some secure place 
of refuge. 

*4th MODE OF INFLECTION.-DIMINUTION. 

Diminution is a Mode of Inflection used to distinguish 
grades of action. 

Diminutive Forms are those indicating small or slight 
actions. 

Formation of Diminutives. Diminutives are formed 
in three ways : 

1. By changing the stem, as " click " from " clack " ; " nip " 
from " nab " ; &g. 

2. By adding the termination Ze, as " crackle " from 
" crack " ; &c. 



110 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

3. By both methods combined, as *' dribble " from " drop ", 
" shuffle " from " shove " ; &c. 

Apparent Diminutives are Diminutives of Nouns, 
used as Yerbs, as '' ruffle " from " ruff" ; " sparkle " from 
"spark"; &c. 

Occasional Use. Diminutives are sometimes used as 
Frequentatives. 

Limit. This Mode of Inflection is used in a few verbs 
only. 

EXAMPLES OF DIMINUTIVES. 

1. Dab, dib ; dap, dip ; grab, grip ; sup, sip ; chop, chip ; &c. 

2. Crack, crackle ; crink, crinkle; crunk, crunkle; crimp, crimple ; 
crumb, crumble ; ding, dingle ; dark, darkle ; drag, draggle ; freck, 
freckle ; fizz, fizzle ; frizz, frizzle; gab, gabble; grunt, gruntle ; hand, 
handle ; hack, hackle ; hag, haggle ; hurt, hurtle ; jog, joggle ; nib, 
nibble ; nest, nestle ; raff", raflle ; stick, stickle ; snuff, snuffle ; sniff, 
sniffle ; start, startle ; snug, snuggle ; siss, sizzle ; tick, tickle ; ting, 
tingle; tink, tinkle ;• tramp, trample; tip, tipple; wag, waggle ; wrest, 
wrestle ; &c. 

3. Bat, battle ; choke, chuckle ; cake (ob.), cackle ; chink, jingle ; 
dwine (ob.), dwindle ; daze, dazzle ; grab, grapple ; hawk, higgle ; 
prate, prattle ; pose, puzzle ; pad, paddle, peddle ; sprinke, sprinkle ; 
shoot, shuttle ; throat, throttle ; turn, trundle ; wring, wrinkle ; wring, 
wrangle ; Fr. tomher, tumble ; Lat. scribo, scribble ; Gei\ schwinden, 
swindle ; An. Sax. smugan, smuggle ; Sw. strug, struggle ; Du. 
schampen, scamble; &c., &c. 

*5th MODE OF INFLECTION. -FREaUENTATION. 
Frequentation is a Mode of Inflection used to distin- 
guish frequency of action. 

Frequentative Forms are those indicating repeated 

actions. 
Formation of Frequentatives. Frequentatives are 

formed in two ways : 

1. By inserting it^ as "nictitate " from " nictate " ; &c. 

2. By adding ter, mer^ or per^ with or without a change 
of the stem, as " twitter " from " twit " ; " whimper " from 
" whine " ; " shimmer " from " shine " ; " glimmer " from 
gleam " ; &c. 

Limit. This Mode of Inflection is used only in a few 
verbs. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. m 

EXAMPLES OF FREaUENTATIVES. 

1. Agitate, calcitvate, cogitate, dictate, (dubitate), hesitate, palpitate, 
racket, msit, inhabit, prohibit, crepitate, (flagitate), &c. 

2. Batter, banter, bluster, clatter, clutter, cluster, canter, chatter, 
flatter, flitter, flutter, fluster, flicker, flounder, falter, fritter, fllter, glis- 
ter, glitter, litter, molder, mutter, pester, palter, plaster, potter, saunter, 
scatter, swelter, sputter, spatter, slaughter, shudder, splutter, smolder, 
stao-crer, smatter, roister, tatter, titter, totter, utter, wander, welter. 

3. Scamper, simper, tamper, temper, whisper, slumber, clamber, 
stammer, simmer, (Slaver, shiver, quaver, quiver, waver.) 

t VOICE AND MOOD. (See Note 25,) 
Voice and Mood are Modes of Inflection of the Yerb 
used in some Languages, but not in English. 

Ancient and Foreign use. The Mode of Inflec- 
tion called Mood once existed in English ; but it is now lost. 
The Mode of Inflection caUed Voice never belonged to the 
English Language, and is found in but few other modern 
languages. It occurs in the Icelandic, Swedish, and Danish 
Languages ; but not in the French, German, Spanish, or 
Italian. 

Voice is a Mode of Inflection used to show the relation 
of the Subject of Discourse to the action expressed by the 

verb. 

An Active Form is one which represents the Subject 
of Discourse as acting, as in Lat. Moneo. (I advise.) 

The Active Voice of a Verb is the aggregate of its 
Active Forms. 

A Passive Form is one which represents the Subject 
of Discourse as acted upon, as Moneor. (I am advised.) 

The Passive Voice of a Verb is the aggregate of 
its Passive Forms. 

Mood is a Mode of Inflection used to vary the manner 
of the assertion, as Moneo (I advise), Moneam (I may ad- 
vise). 

An Indicative Form is one used to make an asser-^ 
tion absolute. 

The Indicative Mood of a Verb is the aggregate of 
its Indicative Forms. 



112 



A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 



A Subjunctive Form is one used to make an asser- 
tion conditional. 

The Subjunctive Mood of a Verb is the aggregate of 
its Subjunctive Forms. 

Greek. In the Greek Language, besides the Active and 
Passive, the verb has a Middle Voice ; and Verbs, Nouns, 
Pronouns, and Adjectives have, besides the Singular and 
Plural, a Dual JSTumber. 

Other Languages. In some other Languages the 
Verb has several other modes of Inflection, as Gender, 
Rank, <fec. (See Kote 14.) 

PART OF THE DECLENSION OF THE LATIN VERB 

MONEO. (ADVISE.) 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Active Voice. Passive Voice. 



Sing. 


Plu. 


Sing. 


Plu. 


Ist Per. Moneo 


Monemus 


1st Per. Moneor 


Monemur 


2nd " Mones 


Monetis 


2nd " Moneris 


Monemini 


3d " Monet 


Monent 


3d " Monetur 


Monentur 




Imperfect Tense. 




Sinff. 


Flu. 


Sing. 


Plu. 


1st Per. Monebam 


Monebamus 


1st Per. Monebar 


MonebamuT 


2nd " Monebas 


Monebatis 


2nd " Monebaris 


Moncbamini 


3d " Monebat 


Monebant 


3d " Monebatur 


Monebantur 




SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 






Present Tense, 




Sing. 


Plu. 


Sing. 


Plu. 


1st Per. Moneam 


Moneamus 


1st Per. Monear 


Moneamur 


2nd " Moneas 


Mon^atis 


2nd " Monearis 


Moneamini 


3d " Moneat 


Moneant 


3d " Moneatur 


Moneantur 




Imperfect Tense. 




Sing. 


Plu. 


Sing. 


Plu. 


1st Per. Monerem 


Monereinus 


1st Per. Monerer 


Moneremur 


2nd " Moneres 


Moneretis 


2nd " Monereris 


Moneremini 


3d " Moneret 


Monerent 


3d " Moneretur 


Monerentur 



PART OF THE DECLENSION OF THE ANGLO-SAXON 
VERB NIMAN, (TO TAKE). 

Indicative Mood, Present Tense. Subjunctive Mood, Present Tense. 



Sing. 
1st Per. Nime 
2nd " Nimest 
3d " Nimeth 



Plu. 



Nimath 



Sing. 



Nime 



riu. 



Nimen 



Ordinary Gomp. 
Pos. Gayly 
Com. Gaylier 
Sup. Gayliest 



Descend, Periplic. Comp. 
Pos. Gayly 
Com. Less Gayly 
1 Sup. Least Gayly 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 113 

INFLECTION OF ADVERBS, 
Adverbs of Manner have one Inflection, called Com. 
parison. 

Other Adverbs have no Inflection. (See l^ote 15.) 
The Comparison of Adverbs is like that of Adjec- 
tives. 

DECLENSION OF THE ADVERB GAYLY. 
Ascend. PeHph. Comp. 
Pos. Gayly 
Com. More Gayly 
Sup. Most Gayly 

IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Well better best 

Badly worse worst 

Far farther farthest 

Little less least 

Much more most 

EXERCISES. 

He should write more carefully and more truthfully. 

He suffered worse than his enemy ; and he suffered justly. 

Luther said that to have prayed well was to have studied well. 

John left home sooner than his cousin came. 

She conversed freely, and sang sweetl}^, and played delightfully. 

Just when the mice were sporting gayliest, the cat appeared. 

One might easily go farther and fare worse. 

He said little and cared less about the result. 

They had a much nobler object and a more persistent zeal. 

* GENERAL INFLECTION, OR REDUPLICATION. 

Reduplication is the most general kind of Inflection, 
and is common to all classes of words except Copulas, 
Prepositions and Conjunctions. 

Method. Reduplication consists in the repetition of a 
part or the whole of a word, usually with some slight 
change, as "tee-total", from "total"; "click-clack", from 
" clack" ; " whim-wham", from " wham " ; &g. 

Use. Redaplication is used chiefly in the colloquial style, 
and mostly for emphasis. 

Importance. In some languages Reduplication is a more 



] 



114 



A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 



important Inflection than it is in English. In the Greek 
there is a regular Reduplication of the Verbal Stem in some 
Tenses. It is also common in Latin, Hebrew, German and 
other languages. 

EXAMPLES. 

Nouns. Mama, papa, ding-dong, sing-song, ditigle-dangle. Aim flam, 
knick-knack, slip-slop, pick-nick, snip-snap, hurdy-gurdy, gew-gaw, &c. 

Pronouns. Me-me my-my, you-you, Lat. sese, quis-quis, &c. 

Adjectives. Namby-pamby, harum-scarum, wishy-washy, ziz-zag, 
&c. 

Verbs. See-saw, dilly-dally, ziz-zag, wig- wag, &c. 

Adverbs. Hurry-skurry, heller-skeUer, pit-a-pat, so-so, pell-mell, 
&c. 

Interjections. Pooh-pooh, bow-wow, fol-de-rol, pshaw-pshaw, &c. 

t REMAINS OF FORMER INFLECTIONS. 
Nominatives. It, that, what, and which, were formerly 

Nominative Cases. 

Genitives. Hence, thence, whence, once, whiles, else, 
needs, rights, and unawares, were formerly Genitive Cases. 
(See Latin Grammar.) 

Datives. Me, him, them, whom, whilom, and seldom, 
were Dative Cases. 

Accusatives. Than or then, when, and whilon (Obs.), 
were Accusative, or Objective, Cases. 

Ablatives. Here, there, where, and whilere (Obs.), were 
Ablative, or Locative, Cases. 

Adlatives. Hither, thither, and whither, were Adiative 

Cases. 

Instrumental. How, why, thus, and the, were Instru- 
mental Cases. 

Relations. The relations of some of these words to each 
other may be seen from a Paradigm. 



Norn. Hit (It)=Thi8 
Gen. Hence =from this 
Dat. Him=for this 

Ace. Hine (obs. )=this 

Abl. Here=inthis 
Adl. Hither=to this 
Instru. How=withthi3 



Special Paradigm. 



That 
Thenoe==from that 
Them) 

Thaml=*o'*^^* 
Than) 

Thenf =t^a* 
There=in that 
Thither=to that 
The 



'-Thus? 



=»with that 



What 
Whence=>»from what 

Whom=f or what 

When=what 
Where=in what 
Whither=to what 
Why=with what 



While=time 
Whiles=of while 

Whilom=for while 

Whilon (obs. )= while 
Whilere=in while 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 115 



* CHAPTER III-COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 

Composition is the formation of Compound Words by- 
combining separate words. 

The Uses of Composition are to abbreviate language, 
and to form specific names, as apple-tree, peach-tree, white- 
oak, &c. 

A Binary Compound is one composed of two words. 

A Ternary Compound is one composed of three 
words, &c. * 

Resemblants are Greek Compounds terminating in o^<^, 
as sjyheroid^ &g. 

Modifiers. In a Binary Compound one part is a modifier 
of the other. 

The Accent, in a Binary Compound, falls on the modi- 
fier, except in Hesemblants, and Proper and Scientific 

Names. 
A Noun modifying another Noun is placed before 

it. 
An Adjective modifying a Noun or Adjective 

is usually placed before it. 

French Compounds. In words from the French a 
modifying Adjective is often placed after the ISToun. 

A Noun modifying an Adjective or a Partici- 
ple is placed before it. 

A Noun modifying a Verb is placed before it to 
form a Verb, and after it to form a Koun. 

An Adjective modifying a Pronoun is usually 
placed before it. 

Double Compounds. Two Compound Words may 
be combined, forming a Double Compound. 

Consolidation. A Phrase or Sentence may be consol- 
idated into a Compound Word. 

Distinction. A Word modified by another is not the 
same thing as a word compounded with another- (A black 
bird is not the same thing as a black-bird. A crow, a hen, 
or a turkey, may be a black bird ; but neither of them is a 



116 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

black-bird. Black-cattle are not necessarily black, but may 
be white or red.) 

A Preposition combined with a Noun is placed before 
it ; but combined with a Pronoun or Yerb, is placed after 
it. A Preposition placed before a Verb forms a deriva- 
tive, and not a compound word. 

The Possessive Case of a Noun, combined with a 
following Noun, usually drops the Apostrophe, and some- 
times the 5, of its termination. 

The Plural Stem of a Woun is changed to the Sin- 
gular before entering into Composition, as a cushion for 
pins = a pincushion. 

Transposition and Omission. In combining two 
Nouns there is usually a transposition of the words, and an 
omission of the words of, for, and, &c., as a shoemaker= 
a maker of shoes ; a pig-pen=a pen for pigs ; a steam-boat 
=a boat propelled by steam ; a printing-press=a press for 
printing ; the boy-soldier^=the boy and soldier ; fourteen= 
four and ten ; &c. 

A Participial Noun often drops its termination when 
combined, as a " wash-tub "=a "tub for washing." 

Contraction. The Composition of a word is sometimes 
obscured by contraction, as in " daisy ", from " day's eye " ; 
*' shepherd ", from " sheep herd "; &c. 

Scientific and Proper Names are usually Com- 
pounds, as "Lobelia Cardinalis", "John Smith", "Henry 
Ward Beecher ", " Professor Perry", &c. 

A Connecting Vowel is one used to connect two 
parts of a word, as o, in " Anglo-Saxon ", " serio-comic ', &c. 

In Greek Compounds the Connectiog Yowel is usu- 
ally o. 

In Latin Compounds the Connecting Vowel is gener- 
ally i. 

EXAMPLES OF COMPOUND WORDS. 

1. Bookcase, corncrib, chessboard, sideboard, cheesepress, haystack, 
pancake, pepperbox, honeycomb, fireplace, lamppost, gateway, window - 
fi-ame, bedstead, broomcorn, doorstep, steeltrap, bookcover, school 
house, chairman, penman, goatherd, sheepshears, watchmaker, p^o 



OF TEE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 117 

knife, caseknife, wheelwright, inkstand, broomstick, sheepskin, shoe- 
string, bootsole, cornsheller, hillside, sidehill, locksmith, goldsmith, 
manservant, servant-man, doorkey, plowman, dairyman, payday, Sun- 
day, Monday, foxhunter, golddigger, seasickness, summerhouse, hand- 
ful, pailful, bypath. 

2. Beanpole, polebean; workhouse, housework; freightship, ship- 
freight ; flowergarden, gardenflower ; bookshop, shopbook ; chestnut- 
horse, horsechestnut ; horsework, workhorse ; &c. 

3. Bear's-wort, cat's-foot, goat's-rue, virgin's-bower, lady's-slipper, 
rat's-bane, king's-evil, John's-wort, Johnstown, Taylorsville, Youngs- 
town, Greenville, Smithfield, Harrisburg, kinsman, kinswoman, hounds- 
tongue, bearsgrass, whalebone, buckskin. 

4. Johnson; Jackson, Dickson, Dixon, Nixon, Peterson, Samson, Samp- 
son, Simpson, Thompson, Nelson, Wilson, MacGregor, MacWilliams, 
McDonald, M'Leester, O'Niel, O'Brien, Fitz Hugh, ap Howell, Powell, 
Prichard. 

5. Readingbook, writingdesk, wrappingpaper, knittingneedle, smooth- 
ingiron, drippingpan, turninglathe, tunlngfork, washbasin, bakepan 
currycomb, grindstone, turntable, ripsaw, forcepump, blowpipe. 

6. Dutchman, Frenchman, Englishman, blacksmith, whitesmith, 
blackbird, bluebird, redbird, freshman, blackoak, sauerkraut, sweetflag, 
greencorn, courtmartial, cousingerman, princeregent, heirapparent. 

7. Manlike, childlike, seasick, homesick, skyblue, snowwhite, grass- 
green, chromeyellow, jetblack, brimfull, brandnew, worldwide, self- 
sufficient. 

8. Winedrinking, seafaring, heavendaring, sabbathbreaking, summer- 
flowering, nightblooming, cottonproducing, woolmanufacturing, fruit- 
bearing, selfdeceiving, motheaten, heavenborn, heartbroken, selfde- 
ceived, friendforsaken, lovelorn, weatherbeaten, shipwrecked. 

9. Blue-eyed, blackhaired, squaretoed, threecornered, fourfooted, 
sixsided, manyangled, halffinlshed, sourfaced. 

10. Longenduring, longsuffering, longconcealed, longforgotten, fine- 
drawn, hardboiled, softboiled, hardfought, finecut, &c. 

11. Myself, thyself, herself, ourselves, yourselves, himself, them- 
selves. 

12. Aboard, across, athwart, besides, between, indeed, forsooth, 
herein, hereof, hereby, hereon, herewith, hereunder, therefore, there- 
over, thereupon, thereagainst, thereof, whereof, whereby, whereat, 
wherewith, &c. 

13. Whoever, whichever, whatever, whoso, whosoever, whosesoever, 
whatsoever, whichsoever, whenever, whensoever, whencesoever. 

14. Boxhaul, backbite, checkmate, cathaul, caseharden, hamstring, 
handcuff", handsel, hoodwink, logroll. 

15. Catchpoll, cutpurse, cutthroat, pickpocket, scapegallows, scare- 



118 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

crow, spendthrift, telltale, turncoat, catchfly, cutwater, catchward, 
breakfast, spitfire, pastime, portcrayon, portfolio, portmoney, ward- 
robe. 

16. IllLimed, illfavored, illconcealed, illcontrived, illconstructed, well- 
planned, wellmaneuvered, wellmanaged, hardly fought, oftcontested, 
finelycut, coarselyground, wellmeaning, ill-looking, illmeaning. 

17. Fatherinlaw, motherinlaw, aid-de-camp, chevaux-de-frise, cap-a- 
pie, avoir-du-pois, leger-de-main, sleight-of-hand, blind-man's-buff, 
fox-and-geese, Jack-with-a-lantern, Will-with-a-wisp, forget-me-not, 
four-o-clock, shoulder-of-mutton, good-for-nothing, the unable-to-take- 
care-of-themselves argument, the I-hope-j^ou-are-not-offended style, 
the never-to-be-forgotten day, the ever-to-be-remembered event, &c. 

18. Cycloid, spheroid, planetoid, asteroid, ellipsoid, varioloid, placoid, 
ganoid, crinoid, conchoid, conoid, ovoid, cylindroid, rhomboid, parabo- 
loid, prismoid, trapezoid, metalloid, alkaloid, crystalloid, colloid, cora- 
coid, coralloid, ginglymoid. 

19. John Bright, Richard Whately, Henry Wilson, James Russell 
Lowell, Martin Van Buren, Edgar Allan Poe, Clupea harengus, Alosa 
praestabilis, Cor Scorpionis, Alpha Leonis, Corvus Americauus, Quis- 
culus versicolor, Salva officinalis, Pyrus haalus, Equus caballus, Canis 
familiaris, Grryllus vulgaris. Sodium Nitrate, Potassium Sulphite, &c. 

NAMES OF THE SCIENCES. 

The Names of the Sciences are mostly Greek com- 
pounds ending with logy^ meaning Science, or with graphy, 
meaning description. 

Connection. These endings are usually joined to the 
first part of the name by the connecting vowel o, as in " G-e- 
o-graphy", " Ge-o-logy", &c. 

Other Endings. Sometimes the endings nomy^ mean- 
ing law, and metry^ meaning measuring, are used in the same 
way, as in " Astronomy", " Geometry ", &c. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Geo^earth; Heho=sun ; Seleno=moon; Astro=star; Aero= 
air ; Meteoro=thing in the air ; Urano=heavens ; Oceano=ocean ; 
Cosmo^world ; Pyro=flre ; Hydro=water ; Physio^nature ; Hygro= 
moisture ; Eudio=pure air ; AeLio=cause ; Chrono=time ; Choro=: 
place; Climato=climate; Hagio=sacred ; Paradoxo:=parodox ; Phono 
=sound ; 

2. Auto=self ; Psycho=soul ; Hepato=liver ; PanLo=all ; Chryso= 
gold; Neo=new; Anthropo=man ; Ethno=people ; Bio=life; Mytho 
=fab]e ; Lexico=dictionary ; Biblio=book ; Caito=niap ; Etymo= 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 119 

word root ; Ideo=idea; Hymno=hymn; Harmono==harmony ; Glosso= 
language or explanation ; Eco=:house ; Pharmaco=medicine ; Noso= 
disease; Chromato=color j Gonio=angle ; Trigono=triangle ; Helico 
=spiral ; 

3. Archaeo=antique ; Palaeonto=ancient being ; Crystallo= crystal ; 
Phyto=leaf; Carpo = fruit ; Embryo=germ ; Oo=egg ; Zoo=animal ; 
Entomo=Insecto=: insect; Helmintho=worm ; Herpeto=:reptile; Os- 
teo=:bone ; Syosteo=joint ; Concbo=shell ; Derniato=skin ; Neuro= 
nerve; Odonto=tooth ; Phlebo=vein ; Mammo=mammal ; Ornitho= 
bird; Ichthyo=:fish ; Malaco=soft; Necro=dead; Egypto=Egypt ; 
Christo=Christ ; Christiano=: christian; Minera=:mineral ; Genea= 
lineage; Systemato=:system ; &c. 

NAMES OF PHILOSOPHICAL INSTRUMENTS. 
The Ending Meter means measure. 
• EXERCISES. 

Anemo=wind; Gaso=gas ; Chrono=time ; Baro=:weight ; Hydro= 
liquid; Hygro= moisture; Thermo = warmth; Micro =small ; Gonio = 
angle; Odo=road ; Ozono=ozone ; Saccharo=sugar ; Galvano=gal- 
vanism ; Photo=light; Electro =electricity ; Eudio=: pure air. 

MISCELLANEOUS GREEK COMPOUNDS. 
Tlie Ending' -graph^ or -graphy sometimes signifies 
writing or drawing, as in " orthography", &q. 

EXERCISES. 

Ortho=correct ; Calli=beautiful ; Steno=short ; Phono=sound 
Photo=light ; Typo=type ; Xylo=wood ; Tele^far ; Litho=stone 
Helio=sun ; Chiro=hand ; AutO:=self; Zinco^zinc ; Panto=all 
Odonto=tooth. 

The Ending Meter means measure or measurer. 

EXERCISES. 

Geo=earth; Dia=through ; Peri=around ; Thermo==warmth; Pyro 
=heat ; Baro=weight ; Photo^ight ; Gonio=angle ; Hydro=liqmd ; 
Gaso=gas ; Hygro=moisture ; Electro=electricity ; Gal vano= galvan- 
ism ; Micro=small ; Odo=:way ; Oeno=alcohol ; Anemo=wind ; Aero 
=air; Psychro=cold; Ozono=ozone ; Saccharo= sugar. 

The Endings -cracy and -arehy^ mean government. 

EXERCISES. 

Mono=one; 01ig=fe\v ; An=:without ; Hept=seven ; Demo=peo- 
ple; Theo=God ; Aristo=best. 



120 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GBAMMAU 

LATIN COMPOUNDS. 
The Ending -ferous means producing, and is usually 
joined to the first part of the word hj the connecting vowel i. 

EXERCISES. 

Gramini = grass ; Carpi = fruit ; Lumini = light ; P os?ili=: fossil ; Me- 
tallic metal ; Auri=gold.; Argenti = silver ; Cupri = copper ; Plumbi 
=lead ; Ferridron ; Carboni=:coal ; 01ei = oil ; Sacchari=sugar ; 
Grani=grain; Conchi=sliell ; Lanci = lance ; Laui=wool. 

The Ending^ -vorous means eating, or devouring. 

EXERCISES. 

Herbi = vegetable ; Garni =flesh ; Insecti=insect ; Gramini= grass ; 
Omm=:all; Carpi=: fruit ; Grani = grain ; Phytideaf. 



t CHAPTER IV.-DERIVATION. 

A Primitive "Word is one not formed from another 
by any other process than Inflection, Euphonic Change, or 
Orthographic Expedient, as " puts", " blink " {blic)^ " vile", 
"falls", &c. 

A Heal Stem is the first, or unaltered, form of a Primi- 
tive Word, as *' put ", " blic ", " vil ", " fal ", &c. 

A Root is an original Syllable from which Stems are 
formed, as ag, from which comes fag^ whence /ac, and hence 
fact,face^ &c. 

Root-Stem. A Stem is sometimes also a Root, as in 
"action '', in which the Stem is ag^ and the Hoot is ag. 

An AfQix is a part of a word (not inflectional or ortho- 
graphic) placed before or after the Stem. 

A Prefix is an Affix placed before the Stem, as im, in 
impure. 

A Suffix is an Affix placed after the Stem, as ly^ in the 
word purely. 

Derivation is the formation of a word from some other 
word, either by the use of a Prefix, or by such a change in 
the Stem or the Termination of the word as changes its 
Class, as '* immoral ", from " moral" ; " hot ", from " heat " ; 
" manly ", from " man " ; &c. (See Note 27.) 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA GE. 121 

A Derivative "Word, is one formed from another by 
Derivation. 

The General Stem of a word may sometimes be the 
same as the real stem, as in ^' run " ; but usually it is differ- 
ent, as in " reduplications '', — of which the General Stem is 
" reduplication '' ; but the Real Stem is pli. ■ 

The Theme of a word is the Real Stem increased by 
some permanent inflectional or educed letter or letters, as 
in "preemption", — of which the Stem is em; the p is 
educed ; the t is inflectional (participial) ; and the Theme is 
empt. 

Inflectional Terminations mostly disappear in the 
process of Derivation ; but those of Participles, Diminu- 
tives, Augmentatives, and Frequentatives remain. Hence 
these are sometimes mistaken for Derivative Forms. 

Stems and Themes are always monosyllabic, and form 
the bases of Derivative Words 

Affixes are joined to Stems and Themes according to 
the Rules for Spelling and the principles of Euphony. 

The Approximate Theme of a word is the simplest 
form of it which is used as an entire English word, and may 
consist of several syllables, as in the word " instrumental- 
ity", of which the Approximate Theme is "instrument." 

MODES OF DEIIIVATI0N.-2. 

1 . The Strong Derivation is that which is effected 
without Affixes. 

2. The Weak Derivation is that in which Affixes are 
used. 

1st MODE.-STRONG BERIVATION. 
The Methods of the Strong Derivation are six, viz.: 

1. A Simple Transfer from one class to another, 
without any change in the Stem, as the Noun " fire " be- 
comes a Verb in the sentence " They fire the guns " ; &g. 

2. A Change of Accent, as " compound ", " com- 
pound " ; &c. 

3. A Vowel Change, as " tale ", from " tell ; " shot ", 
from " shoot " : &c. 



122 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

4. A Change of Vowel and Accent, as ^' produce " 
''produce"; " record "," record " ; <fcc. 

6. A Consonant Change, as "leaf", "leave", 
"thief", ''thieve"; "use", "use"; &c. 

6. A Consonant and Vowel Change, as "live", 
"life"; " bake "," batch " ; <fcc. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Iron, ill, shovel, rake, fork, fall, fence, heat, wet, foot, book, pencil, 
hand, mouth, finger, loose, cover, call. 

2. Absent, abstract, accent, affix, augment, colleague, compact, com- 
pound, compress, concert, concrete, conduct, confine, conflict, conserve, 
consort, contract, contrast, converse, convert, desert, descant, digest, 
essay, extract, ferment, frequent, import, incense, insult, object, per- 
fume, permit, prefix, subject, survey, torment, transfer, protest, trans- 
port, compact, august, exile, instinct, supine^ contract, convert, perfect, 
detail, increase, retail. 

3. Sell, sale; slit, slat, slot; gripe, grip; beat, bat; bind, band, 
bond ; bite, bit; bleed, blood ; cut, coot; deal, dole ; draw, dray ; feed, 
food ; gold, gild ; hang, hing ; knit, knot ; lade, load ; lay, law ; lead, 
lode; %2ij,saw; sip, sop, soup ; shear, share; sing, song; spit, spite, 
spot, spout ; stick, stack, stake, stock ; strike, stroke ; strow, straw ; 
sweep, swoop ; &c. 

4 Deser't, desert ; premise, premise ; presage, presage ; present, pre- 
sent ; project project; rebel, r^bel; refuse, refuse. 

5. Gird, girt ; beak, peak ; lose, loose ; "rise, rise ; boll, poll ; dig, 
ditch; house, house ; strive, strife; wreath, wreathe ; sheath, sheathe ; 
believe, belief; relieve, relief; reprove, reproof; behoove, behoof; 
knob, knop ; &c. 

6. Cloth, clothe ; breathe, breath ; lose, loss ; choose, choice ; dig, 
dike, ditch ; creep, crab ; ball, pill ; botch, patch ; bump, bomb ; sweep^ 
swab ; make, match ; live, life ; &c. 

2iid MODE.-WEAK DERIVATION. 
The Methods of the Weak Derivation are five, viz. : 

1 . A Prefix is used, as in " unsound ", from " sound ". 

2. A Suffix is used, as in "soundly ", from " sound ". 

3. A Prefix and Suffix are used, as in " unsoundly ", 
from " sound ". 

4. Repetition. These Processes are repeated, as in 
" in-com-press-ibil-ity ", from " compressible ", from " press ". 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA GE. 123 

6. Addition. Each of these changes is added to each 
of the changes of the Strong Derivation. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Incomplete, completeness, incompleteness ; press, express, express- 
ive, expressiveness, inexpressiveness ; hand, handy, unhandy, unhand- 
ily ; reconfinement ; unbinding, disbanded, rebonded ; representative, 
presently ; undergirding, ungirted ; loser ; breathless ; cleave, cleft ; 
compose, compost ; band, bind, bond, bundle. 

CLASSES OF DERIVATIVES, 
Words of each Class are derived from those of each 
class, viz. : 

1. Verbs from Nouns, as "thieve", from " thief " ; 
" leave ", from " leaf " ; <fcc. 

2. Nouns from Verbs, as ^' life ", from " live " ; " drift ", 
from " drive " ; &c. 

3. Adjectives from Nouns, as "wooden", from 
" wood " ; " peaceful ", from " peace " ; &g. 

4. Adjectives from Verbs, as " speakable ", jfrora 
" speak " ; " saving ", from " save " ; &c. 

6. Adjectives from Adjectives, as " untrue ", from 
" true " ; " impure ", from " pure " ; &c. 

6. Nouns from Adjectives, as "bitters", from 
" bitter " ; " usefulness ", from " useful " ; &q. 

7. Verbs from Adjectives, as "enrich", from 
" rich " ; " belittle ", from " little " ; &c. 

8. Pronouns from Adjectives, as " it ", from " hit "/ 
" them ", from " that " ; &c. 

9. Adverbs from Adjectives, as " sweetly ", from 
"sweet"; ^^soonly^\ from "soon"; &c. 

10. Adverbs from Pronouns, as " here ", from " hi " 
(A. S.) ; " then ", from " that " ; &c. 

11. Adverbs from Nouns, as " twice " from " two " ; 
"verbatim", from " verbum " (L.) ; <fec. 

12. Adverbs from Adverbs, as "untruly", from 
" truly " ; " improperly", from " properly " ; &c. 

13. Prepositions from Nouns, as " by", from " bye " ; 
" in ", from " inna " (Goth.) ; &c. 



124 ^ COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

14. Adverbs from Prepositions, as " in ", from " in ' 
(they called him in) ; <fcc. 

1 5. Conjunctions from Verbs, as " if", from " give " ; 
" and ", from " andan " (A. S.) ; &c. 

16. Nouns from Nouns, as " unkraut " from " kraut " 
(Ger.) ; '' nothing ", from " thing " ; &c. 

17. Verbs from Verbs, as "return", from "turn"; 
" withstand ", from " stand " ; &c. 

FOREIGN MATERIALS. 

1. Foreign Words. Very many words have been 
borrowed from the French, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Dutch, 
Danish, Spanish, Italian, Welsh, Arabic, German, Portu- 
guese, and Indian Languages. 

2. Foreign Stems and Themes. Besides entire 
words many Stems and Themes have been taken from those 
Languages ; and from them a multitude of Derivatives have 
been formed, — sometimes a hundred or more from a single 
stem. 

3. Foreign Affixes. Many Affixes as well as Stems 
are from the Latin, Greek, French, &c. 

The Original Stock or foundation of the English Lan- 
guage is the Anglo-Saxon. 

The Principal Additions to that have been taken 
from the French, Latin, and Greek. 

AFFIXES. 
1. Some Anglo Saxon Prefixes. 

^=on, as aboard. Ex. Shore, ground, side, sleep, loft. 

Be=hj, as because, &c. Often it is intensive or merely euphonic, as 
in bedim, bespatter. In become, befall, and bechance, it is the 
Copula. Ex. Before, besides, between, bedim, befit, behave, be- 
spatter, becloud, bedizzen, betray, bewilder. 

^?i=in, or make, as encase, enrich. Ex. Close, chain, circle, camp, 
force, grave, feeble, large, trap, tomb, bottle, bark, balm, brace, 
power, bitter, bezzle. 

In— in, or make. Ex. Close, gulf, wall, sure, bitter, brown, brue, 
prison, poverish, sure, fix, bibe, pair. 

Fore=\>eiQve. Ex. Noon, see, tell, sight, head, ordain. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 125 

JIfi5=\vrong. Ex. Call, calculate, behave, deed, demeanor. 
Oi^^=beyond, or external. Ex. Bid, live, last, run, do, march, number? 

line, side, ride, wear, landish, post, crop. 
OzJe?'=over, or too much. Ex. Hang, leap, load, awe, throw. 
?7)i:=dis, or not. Ex. Bind, bolt, load, certain, fair, true. 
Under =\o\7Qv. Ex. Officer, clerk, current, bid, mine, take. 
Witli=^ivom., or against. Ex. Draw, hold, stand. 

2.— Some Latin Prefixes. 

^&=from. Ex. Duct, solve, dicate, lution, vert, tain. 

Ad=:io. Ex. Join, here, mit, duce, vert, jacent, scend, spire, scribe, 
venge, cept, cident, cord, knowledge, quire, firm, finity, flux, 
gress, glutinate, gravate, literation, leviate, lege, lot,nex,nounce 
nul, numerate, noy, pond, ply, pertain, proach, range, rogate, 
rosion, rive, sist, similate, sume, sail, tempt, test, tend, tribute. 

^m&=about. Ex. Ition, iquity, putate, ient, ustion. 

^n^e=before. Ex. Cedent, date, chamber, diluvian, penult. 

(7*>cww=around. Ex. Navigate, scribe, ference, it, spect, stance. 

Cis=on this side. Ex. Atlantic, Alleghan, Alpine, Arctic. 

C(?7i= together, or with. Ex. Duct, duce, nect, voke, cur, tain, tract, 
gress, elude, sider, agulate, adjutor, heir, here, tangent, operate, 
lect, lide, lapse, gnate, gniiion, gnizant, bine, press, mingle, 
pose, plete, respond, rect, rode, roborale, rugate, relative. 

Contra=a.g3Lmst. Ex. Diet, vene, vert, distinguish. 

Counter=a.gai[iisi. Ex. Act, mand, balance, march, sign. 

i>e=down, from, or about. Ex. Duce, fend, ject, pose, pend. 

Dis (F.)=:not, or un. Ex. Honest, respectful, crown, mount. 

Dis (L.)=apart. Ex. Pel, sect, tend, tract, pose, tribute, vert, verge, 
gress, vide, vorce, mension, fuse. 

^=out. Ex. Clude, cite, tract, tend, cept, ist, tort, ceed, pert, ject, 
lect, rase, duce, gress, liminate, face, fuse, feet, fluence, ferves- 
cence, fort. 

-Ea;^ra=beyond. Ex. Mundane, ordinary, vagant, judicial. 

i7i=in, on, or not. Ex. Case, clude, flux, fuse, spect, ter, cision, hale, 
sect, luminate, lusion, merse,mure, pede, plant, pose, print, pugn, 
precate, radiate, ruption, active, glorious, justice, ability, correct, 
logical, legible, licit, material, mature, partial, prudent, regular, 
resolute. 

7n^er=between. Ex. Cede, jacent, vene, line, lude, sect. 

Intro^:^\x\. Ex. Duce, vert, spection, mission. 

tTwa^^a^next. Ex. Position, posit. 

0&=against, on account of, or before. Ex. Trude, struct, ject, viate, 
stacle, cur, cultation, fend, fer, pose, pugn, press. 

jifa^=bad. Ex. Practice, formation, treat, aria, administration. 



126 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAIi 

Per=through, or wrong. Ex. Ambulate, forate, feet, vade, lucid, 

spire, spective, spicuous, ennial, vert. 
J/w?^i=many. Ex. Ply, farious, angular, tude, nomial. 
Po5^=after. Ex. Script, meridian, diluvian, mortem. 
Pre=before. Ex. Cede, diet, fix, destine, judge, lude, mise. 
Pre^er=beyond. Ex. Natural, ite, human, legal, perfect, 
P7'0=foY, or forward. Ex. Noun, consul, ceed, duce, pel, tract, claim, 

fit, logue, mote, phet, scribe, spect, vide. 
Pe=back, again, or against. Ex. Cede, call, form, sume, sist, cant, 

duce, fleet, novate, eem, integrate, iterate. 
Metro^hsickweLvd. Ex. Grade, spect, cede, vert. 
/fif=much, or large. Ex. Melt, plash, nip, lash, pike, pile, creak, 

mash. 
/Se=aside, Ex. Cede, cession, duce, elude, lect, ver, parate. 
Se77d=ha}f. Ex. Circle, circumference, weekly, annual, fluid. 
/Sme^ without. Ex. Cure, cere, pie, gle. 
Sub=nnder. Ex. Scribe, officer, marine, urbs, divide, mit, ject, 

stance, tract, cumb, ceed, cor, fuse, fer, fix, port, press, ply, 

plant, pend, tain, spect, ceptible. 
Suiter =^undei'. Ex. Fuge, fluent, fluous. 
Supe7'=over. Ex. Fine, excellent, ior, structure, fluous, sede. 
Sur (F.) = over, or upon. Ex. Charge, vive, vey, face, name, plus, 

tout. 
Trans=oveY, or through. Ex. Port, scend, alpine, parent, fer, late, 

atlantic, scribe, gress, fuse, lucent, mit, pose, port, plant, dition, 

montane. 
Ultra— beyond. Ex. Montane, ist, ism, marine. 

3. Some Greek Prefixes. 

^=without. Ex. Cephalous, byss, chromatic, damant, morphous, 

archy, omaly, onymous, tom, theist. 
-4w^7i*= double. Ex. Bious, bia, bian, bole, bolite, brach, logy. 
^n<z=again, up, or through. Ex. Baptist, chronism, gram, logy, 

lysis, lytic, thema, tomist, leptic. 
J[n^^■=against, or opposite. Ex. Republican, slavery, agonist, pathy, 

podes. 
Apo=frora. Ex. Cope, gee, logy, helion, calypse. 
Cata=dowu, against. Ex. Logue, ract, rrh, strophe, holic. 
i)i<z=: through, apart, or double. Ex. Meier, gonal, lect, logue. 
J)ys='bsid. Ex. Pepsia, phony, odile, opsy, phoria. 
Ec=o\ii, or from. Ex. Centric, lectic, haust, hume, act. 
En=m, or upon. Ex. Demic, phasis, caustic, plection. 
^*=upon. Ex. Demic, zootic, logue, hemeral, thet, tome. 
JEJu=good. Ex. Logy, phony, angel, phemism, charist. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 127 

Hyper=oyev, Ex. Critical, bole, bola, borean, meter, trophy. 
Hi/po=und.ei\ Ex. Sulphite, nitrous, crisy, tenuse, gean. 
Meta=heyond. Ex. Physics, phor, thesis, morphose, plasm. 
Para = beside. Ex, Phrase, allel, ody. dox, ble, digm, graph. 
Pm=about, Ex. Meter, phrase, phery, helion, gee, style. 
Poli/=ra3inj. Ex. Syllable, petalous, gon, pus, theist, pod, nomial. 
/S'?/?i— with. Ex. Opsis, od, pathy, logism, lable, metry, stem, bol, 
phony, tax, ptom, cope, chronism. 

4. Numeral Prefixes.— Latin. 

TTni ) 

[ =one. Ex. Lateral, verse, valve, arian, que, son, plicate. 

Unit ) 

{ z= twice. Ex. Sextile, lateral, valve, dentate, chromate, axial. 

_ I = thrice. Ex. Syllable, chotomous, angle, foliate, une, pie. 
Tri J 

Qadri=:iow:, Ex. Angle, ennial, ate, el, ant, lateral, dentate. 
^, ^ i =:flve. Ex. Dentate, fid, angular, syllable, partite, pie. 

Sex 



. , :six. Ex. Angle, digitism, ennial, fid, syllable, tile, tant. 

jj I =seven. Ex. Partite, ber, angular, ennial, fluous, virate. 

Oc^o= eight. Ex. Decimal, ennial, ber, dentate, petalous. 

Novem^mne. Ex. Ennial, ber, ary, ene. 

Decein=ien. Ex. Ennial, ber, al, fid, vir, dentate, illion. 

5. Numeral Prefixes.— Greek. 

Jlfo 710= Single. Ex. Tone, gram, lith, cracy, archy, syllable. 

Dis ) 

' . S =twice or double. Ex. Hedral, graph, lemma, morphism. 

Tris ] 

, V = thrice. Ex. Petaloid, petalous, phthong, pod, spermous- 

Tetra=ioviY. Ex. Chord, meter, gon, hedron, logy, merous. 
Penta=^ve. Ex. Gon, chord, capsula, crinite, hedral, teuch. 
Hexa=six. Ex. Meter, merous, androus, gon, pod, hedron. 
Hepta=seven. Ex. Hedron, gon, archy, teuch, glot, chord, merous. 

^ > = eight. Ex. Gon, Hedron, merous, teuch, spermous, pod. 

Ennea=nine. Ex. Gon, hedron, spermous, petalous, androus, hedral. 
I)eca=ien. Ex. Chord, gon, gram, hedron, logue, meter, phyllous, 

pod. 
Endeca=e\even. Ex. Gon, gynous, phillous. 
Dodeca=twelye. Ex. Gon, gynous, hedron, androus, petalous, style. 



128 ^ COMPLETE SCIEl^TIFlO GRAMMAR 

6. Principal Sirffixes. 

6Ze=able, fit, or proper, — as profitable=able or fit to profit. Ex. 

Suit, eat, driuk, use, access, aud, conlempt. 
bleness ) =the quality of being able, &c. Ex. Reason, pardon, com- 
Mlity ) pat, combust, excuse, resist, reprebensi, contempt. 
nc6 I =slate, act, or thing, Ex. Prevale, dilige, expecta, relucta, 
ncy ) importa, insura, impude, compete, rege, solve. 
ant I =ing, person, or thing. Ex. Presid, resid, conson, dec, relev, 
ent ) pursu, cogniz, string, redol, confid, iudol, vigil, ten. 
lent=a\>o\ind\ng in, Ex. Corpu, viru, vio, escu, pesti. 
lence= quality of abounding in. Ex. Corpu, &c. 

ion ) =act, state, or thing. Ex. Punish, quest, agree, vis, sess, 
ment ) resent, reduct, provis, elect, argu, tor, imple, 
a^e=having the quality, or to make. Ex. Rose, cune, foli, digit,, 

nomin, separ, design, viti, illustr, ov, immedi, renov. 
a.^e=rank, office, state, act, thing, or allowance. Ex. Parson, peer, 

usage, person, pilgrim, ton, post, vis, sav, salv, mess, pass. 
en,fy, ) =to make, making, or made. Ex. Light, dark, just, magn, 
fit, fi'C ) test, bene, pro, sopori, beati, cheap, wood, hard, vili, terri. 
er, or, eer, ier, ian, dan, ean, ) =person. Ex. Writ, execut, auc- 
ee, ist, ite, san, zan, zen, ast, ) tion, cannon, civil, arithmeti, crus- 

tac, consign, bapt, Israel, arti, courte, citi, enthusi, gyran, parti. 
ar, ary, ate, ive \ (sometimes)=person or thing. Ex. Li, secret, magn, 
ster, ado, oso J relat, pun, desper, virtu, col. 

ac, ar, ary, an, al, \ (generally) =pertaining to, relating to, or like. 
ic, ine, He, ical, ) Ex. Cardi, demoni, regul, exempl, Ilercule, tili, 

histor, atmospher, fel, puer, cler, class, spher. 
Aood=community, condition, or office. Ex. Brother, man, priest, 

neighbor. 
i7e^=easily. Ex. Duct, doc, frag, ag, versat, volat. 
ice, ty, cy=quality or office, Ex. Just, vani, luna, frequen, coward, 

beau, captain, liber, chari, priva. 
Jice=Si making, or doing. Ex. Bene, arti, of, sacri, ori. 

) ^partaking of, like, or consisting of, Ex. Sapon, aren, 

( resin, hazard, vitre. vici, melodi, labor. 
ous ) 

i=.of (Termination of L. Genitive), Ex. Agriculture, horti, aurifer- 
ous, somni, regicide, fratri. 

ive-=Xendi\xxg to, Ex. Destruct, affirmat, posit, relat, distinct. 

4sm=doctrine, state, science, or peculiarity. Ex. Mormon, vulgar, 
wittic, barbar, American, Anglic, magnet. Gal van. 

tse=make or assimilate. Ex. Revolution, christian, galvan, magnet, 
theor, advert, civil, real. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG JJAGE. 129 

tC5=:science, doctrine, or art. Ex, Mechan, phys, gymnast, opt, 

mathemat, polit, eth, hydrostat, metaphys. 
asA=like, pertaining to, or to make. Ex. Publ, burn, tarn, accompf, 

dimin, rel, embell, Engl, Scott, brut, wolf, winter, establ. 
ed or «t?=made or making. Ex. Sol, gel, val, flor, insip, wretch, 

crook. 
less—\v\\\vQvX or destitute of. Ex. Life, money, power, ijse. 
Z^=like, or in a manner. Ex. Brother, friend, world, kind, beast, 

pure, wise, happi, exceeding, useful. 
ful ) =:full, like, or abounding in. Ex. Hope, use, lacrym, siliqu, 
o&e \ silicul, joy, comat, verb, joe, bellic. 
ness—z.QX, state, or quality. Ex. Calm, white, busi, rash. 
/6ro'MS=producing. Ex. Luraeni, pest, voc, carp, auri. 
(?r2^= containing, tending to, nature of, or place where. Ex. Dormit, 

laborat, orat, invent, dilat, satisfact, nugat, circulat, excret. 

|. =Jurisdiction or possession. Ex. Bishop, king, earl. 

«M;?=Office, state, or district. Ex. Judge, town, friend. 

W(?e=capacity or state. Ex. Quiet, plenit, maguit, gratit. 

ward=:m a direction. Ex. Heaven, home, wind, back. 

ure=SLCt, art, state, or thing. Ex. Impost, forfeit, fail, indent, agri- 
cult, manufact, discomfit, feat. 

eri/ ) art, practice, place, full of, ) Ex. Brib, tann, gunn, penu, abilit, 

'^1/, y 1 state, possession, thing. [ honest, propert, batter, laund. 

some=Au a measure. Ex. Lone, dark, noi, toil, blithe. 

i/4=quaHty, or act. Ex. Warm, strong, wid, grow, til. 

d or t=: thing. Ex. Produc, fac, frui, sigh, draugh, haf, hil, hef, 
shaf, pos, twis, mal, plai, deb, join. 

m=thing. Ex. Bloo, glea, wor, ste, pal, pris, chas, psal, char, bar. 

07'=quality. Ex. Err, fav, od, trem, turn, splen, vig, rig, val. 

and I = should be. Ex. Multiplic, divide, minu, subtrah, leg, rever, 

end J deod. 

andum ] . ,,, . ■ 

, > =that which should be. Ex. Memor, add, corrig. 

e5ce=begin. Ex. Conval, deliqu, efferv, acqui, efiior. 
edj (Z=did, made, or supplied with. Ex. Wait, round, ruin, water, 
horn, beard, red hair, blue eye, col, wil, bal, ari. 

DEVELOPMENT. 

The Development of a Stem or Theme is the 

formation of its Derivatives. 



130 



A COMPLETE SCIEITTIFIQ GRAMMAR 



EXAMPLE. 

Development of the Stem vd Oyw?5)=: drive or strike. 



Compel 

Compelled 

Compelling 

Compeller 

Compellable • 

Compellibly 

Compellation 

Compellatory 

Compulsatory 

Compulsative 

Compulsatively 

Compnlsatorily 

Compulsion 

Compulsive 

Compulsively 

Compulsivenesa 

Compulsory 

Compulsorily 

Depulse 

Depulsion 

Depulsory 

Depulsive 

Dispel 

Dispelled 

Dispelling 

Dispeller 

Dispellible 

Dispulsion 



Expel 

Expelled 

Expeller 

Expelling 

Expellable 

Expulse 

Expulsion 

Expulsive 

Expulsively 

Impel 

Impelled 

Impellent 

Impeller 

Impelling 

Impulse 

Impulsor 

Impulsive 

Impulsively 

Impulsiveness 

Impulsion 

Interpel 

Propel 

Propelled 

Propelling 

Propeller 

Propellable 

Propulse 

Propulsive 



Propulsation 
Propulsion 

Propulsively 

Pulse 

Pulsate 

Pulsatile 

Pulsative 

Pulsation 

Pulsatory 

Pulsific 

Pulsion 

Pulsator 

Pulseless 

Pulselessness 

Pulsimeter 

Pulsive 

Appulse 

Appulsion 

Appulsive 

Repel 

Repelling 

Repelled 

Repellent 

Repeller 

Repellency 

Repellence 

Repellable 

Repulse 



Repulsed 

Repulser 

Repulsing 

Repulsion 

Repulsive 

Repuisivenesa 

Repulsory 

Repulseless 

Repulsively 

Uneompelled 

Uncompellable 

Uricompelling 

Unexpelled 

Uiiexpellable 

TJnexpelling 

Unrepelled 

Unrepelling 

Unrepellable 

Compellibility 

Conipellableness 

Dispellibility 

Dispellibleness 

Expellableness 

Expellibility 

Impellable 

Impellableness 

Impellibility 

Interpellableness 



STEMS AND THEMES FOE DEVELOPMENT. 

1. Bide, wake, bear, beat, bend, bid, bind, bite, blow, break, bring, 
build, burn, buy, cast, catch, choose, clothe, come, creep, cut, dare, 
deal, dig, do, drive, eat, fall, feed, fight, find, fly, freeze, get, gild, gin, 
give, go, hang, have, hear, hit, hold, hurt, keep, knit, know, knead, lead, 
let, lose, make, mean, mow, pay, quit, read, rend, rid, ride, rise, run, 
saw, say, see, sell, send, set, sit, shape, shave, shear, shine, shoe, shoot, 
shut, sing, sling, smite, speak, spell, spin, spring, stand, stick, strike, 
strive, sweep, swell, take, teach, tell, think, thrive, weave, work, write. 

2. Bode, curse, chase^ clean, cleanse, clear, clip, chop, chain, dim, 
dip, drill, drain, dwell, dwine, dull, earn, free, fare, fell, fend, fill, fix, 
filch, fray, gain, gauge, gore, graze, gaze, glaze, glare, heal, heave, hop, 
hope, haul, hum, hack, hew, howl, jar, jolt, kill, kick, lave, lease. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA QE. 131 

live, love, lack, last, lapse, list, move, march, munch, mix, mince, nab, 
nip, ope, own, oust, pick, pack, pitch, push, pull, pule, play, ply, plow, 
plead, plod, plunge, plan, pray, pry, prune, press, pour, purl, purr, 
quench, quizz, raise, rave, risk, rest, rinse, rip, rap, rub, save, search^ 
serve, tend, tame, tinge, tap, tip, urge, vex, view, wend. 

3. Ape, air, ax, art, awn, arm, ash, bag, bog, bug, book, boor, boy, 
box, boll, ball, bell, bill, bale, boil, bud, beam, boom, bar, beer, bean, 
bone, bound, bond, band, base, beast, boast, bunch, bank, bench, cart, 
car, Cave, call, cap, cop, cob, cab, day, dell, dole, deal, dike, ditch, dart, 
dirt, din, den, doom, dame, eve, elf, elm, end, earth, ell, eye, fan, fen. 
fawn, fun, fame, fume, foam, flame, flow, flue, flax, flock, flag, floor, 
frame, frog, fish, fist, foot, fop, fence. 

4. Gate, gale, gull, ghost, grain, grass, ground, grip, hand, hen, hall, 
hill; hull, home, heart, hearth, horse, house, inch, imp, inn, jamb, jar, 
jug, jig, jew, jaw, king, key, knot, lad, lid, list, last, lease, loss, lace, 
laugh, life, leaf, loaf, lip, leap, lamb, limb, lime, loam, lump, lamp, man, 
moon, moan, mist, mast, nest, nose, night, owl, oak, oar, oil, pan, pine, 
pain, pound, pint, quart, quest, queen, rain, rent, rock, rick, rug, ring, 
song, sack, sill, silk, sun, sort, tack, tin, tun, town, urn, van, voice, vice, 
wall, well, while, whale, wheel. 

5. All, arch, blue, base, bare, broad, cool, cross, dense, dry, dear, 
dull, deaf, dark, drear, dun, deft, east, far, fore, fine, false, fresh, free, 
frank, full, foul, great, grand, good, high, hot, hale, hard, ill, just, kind, 
loose, lax, lame, late, lean, lone, low, much, meek, mere, near, nigh, 
north, nice, out, old, own, pert, poor, pure, spry, shrill, shrewd, strong, 
swift, straight, tame, true, vain, void, wan, well, wise, young. 

6. Ac=;sharp, ag (act)=act, al=nourish or grow, alt (ult)=change, 
alt=high, ambl=walk, am=love, ampl=large, ang=vex or trouble, 
angl=corner, an(anim)=life or mind, ann (enn)=:ryear, art=joint, aspr= 
rough, astr=star, aud (ed, ey)=hear. aug (auc, auth)=increase, van 
(ab ante)=front, barb=beard, beau (belle) =fine, bell=war, ben 
(bene)=well. 

7. Blam=censure, cad (cas, cid)=:fall, cid (cis)=cut or kill, calc= 
stone, cand (cend, cens)=glow, can (cant, centl=sing, cap (cep, cept, 
ceit, cip, ceiv)=take, cap (capit, cipit, chap)=head, carn=flesh, ced 
(cess)=go, cent=hundred, cer=wax, cern (crem, crim,cret)=separate, 
circ=ring, cit (quot)=call, civ=townsman, clam (claim)=call, clar= 
clear. 

8. Claud (claus, clois, clud, clus, clos)= close, col (cul)=rtill, cor 
(cour, cord)=heart, corn=horn, corp=body, cred=believe, cre=orig- 
inate, crep (crepit)=snap, cresc (cret, creas, cru, cruit) grow, crim 
(crimin)=crime, cruc=cross, cumb (cub)=recline, cur=care, curr 
(cour)=:run, cut (cuss)=shake, dent=tooth. 



132 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

9. Die (dit)=show or say, dign (deign, dain)=worthy, do (dat, dit, 
don)=give, doc=teacli, dol=:grief or pain, dub = doubL, due— lead, 
dur=hard, ens (ent)=beiiig, i (it, t)=go, equrrequal, err=wander, 
fac (fee, fie, fy, feas, feat, fit)=do or make, fall (fals)=deeeive, fara=: 
fame. 

10. Fa (fac, far, fant, fand, fat)=speak, fend (fens, fence) = strike, 
fer=bear, fid (fy)=faith, fin==limit, flee (flex)=bend, flor (flour, flower) 
=blossom, flu (flux)=flow, form=shape, fort (force)= strong, frag(frac, 
frange, fringe) = break, frig (fresh)=:cold, fund (fuse)=pour, gen = 
origin, ger (gest)=carry. 

11. Grad (gress)=step, grat (greet, gree j=:grace or favor, grav (griev, 
grief) = heavy, hab (hib, ab, bt)=have, her (hes)=stick, jac (ject)= 
throw, jud {jus dic)=decide, jung (join)=unite, jur=swear, jus (jur) = 
law, just=right, lat=carry, leg=send, leg (lig, lectj=:gather or read, 
lev (leav, liev, lief, lift)=light. 

12. Leg (law)=irule, lib {iiv)=free, libr=weight, lig = tie, lim (limit) 
^boundary, lin=line, liq=flowing, loc^place, loq (loc)=speak, luc= 
light, lud (lus)=play or deceive, magn (main, maj)=great, mand 
(mend) =order, mane (main, mans)=:continue, man (main)=rhand, raed= 
middle. 

13. Med=cure, mem (ment)=:mind, mend=:blemish, mere (merch) 
=:trade, merg (mers)=dip, migr=r remove, min=overtop, min=less, 
mir=wonder, misc (mix, ming)=blend, mitt (miss)=rsend, mod=meas- 
Tire. mon=advise or warn, monstr=show, mors (mort, murd)=death, 
mor=manner. 

14. Move (mot, mob)=:raove. mun (mon, muner)=part or reward, 
mut=change, nas (nat)=birth, nect (nex)=:join, noc (iiox, nuis)=hurt, 
nose (not, gnosc, gnit, know)=know, not=:mark, nov=:nevv, nunc 
(nounc)=tell or call, ord=arrange, or (orat, orac)=speak, par (pair, 
peer)=equal. 

15. Par (per, pair, ver)=:make ready or command, pars (part, parc)=: 
part, pat (pass)=:endure, pac (peas, peac)=:peace, pell (puls)=drive, 
pend (pens)=:hang, pend (pens)=weigh, pen (pain)=pain, ped (pet) = 
foot, pet (peat)=:seek or ask, plac (plais, pleas)=please, plen=full, pie 
(plet, pleth, plish, pii, pler)=fill. 

16. Plic (pli, ply, pie, ble, plex, play, pi) = fold, pond (poise)=weight, 
pon (pos, pound, post, pot, vost)=put or place, pop (peop, pub)=peo- 
ple, port=carry, pot (poss, puis, pow)— able, pi-ec (prais, priz)=price, 
prec (pray)=entreat, prehend (pris, priz, priev, prens)= grasp, prem 
(prim, print, press)=press. 

17. Prob (prov, proof)=:try, pugn (pugil)=:fight, pung (punct, poign, 
pon, point, pounce, punch)=prick, put=think, quer(ques, quis, quir)=: 
seek, rap (rep, rav)=:seize, reg (rig, rect, right, reign, rul)=rule, rid 



OF THE ENaLISH LANG UAOE. 133 

(ris)=laugh, rog=ask, rupt=break, sal (sail, sault, salt, su?, suit, sil)=: 
leap, sat=enough. 

18. Scand (scend)=climb, sci=know, scrib (script)=write, sec (sect, 
saw)=:cut, sed (sess, sid, sieg, siz)=sit, sent (sens)=feel or think, seq 
(sect, sue, sui)=follow, sert=put, serv (serg)=keep, sign=mark or 
seal, sist=stand, solv (solut) = loose, spec (spic, spis, spit)=:look, spir 
(sprite, spright, spirit)=breath. 

19. St (stat, stit, stic)=:stand, string (stric, strain, strait, straiglit) = 
bind, stru (struct, s troy) = build, sum (surapt)=take, tang (tact, tag, 
ting, tig, leg, tir)=touch, temp (time)=time, tend (tent, tens)=stre'. cli 
or go, ten (tain, tin, tent)=zhold, term=limit, terr=earth, terr=: frighten. 

20. Test=\vitness, ting (tinct, tain, tint)=stain, tort (lors)=twist, 
trah (track, tract, drag, draw, trait, trail, tray, trac, trad)=draw, tri= 
three, ut (us)=use, val (vail)=be strong, ven (vent) = come, vert (vers, 
veer, vort)=turn, vi (voy, way)=vvay, vid (vis, vie, ud, ved, view)=see. 

21. Vid (void, vie, vis, wid)=part, vine (vict, vanq)=conquer, viv 
(vict, vit)=Iive, voc (vok, vouch, vow)=call, volv (volut, volt, wallow) 
r=roll, vdt (vout, vow)=:vow, vulg (mulg)=common, franc (franche)= 
free or French. 

22. Aer=air, angel == messenger or message, astr=star, aut=self, bi 
=life, bol=cast or put, centr=middle, chir=hand, chol=bile, christ= • 
anointed chron=time, chym=melted, cler=lot or portion, clin (clit) 
=lean or lie, com=: festivity, cosm=beauty or the world, crat (crac) = 
power. 

23. Crit (cris)=judge, crypt=: conceal, cycl=circ]e, dem=people, 
dox=teaching, ev (eu)=well, gara=marriage, ge=:earth, gen = descent, 
gloss (glot)=tongue, glyph = writing, hel=sun, hem=haif, hol=whole, 
hom=:same, hor=hour, hydr (hy)=:water, id=peculiar, idol=:image,. 
is=equal, gno=know, gon— angle, graph (grave, gram) = writing. 

24. Lab=take, la (lay)=people, latr=service or worship, leps (lept, 
lem)=taking, leth=oblivion, lith=stone, log=:science or discourse, lys 
^loosing, macr=large, manc=divining, raart=witu8ss, math=learn- 
ing, matnrmoving, mech(raechan) = contrive, mel (melan)=black, men 
rrmonth, raes (mezzo)== middle. 

25. Metr=measure, micr=small, mim=imitator, mis=hatred, mon = 
one or alone, morph=form, mus=:song, rays=muscle, myst=:secret, 
myth=fable, narc=stupor, naus = seasickness, nav = ship, neb = fog, 
necr=dead, nem=grove, ne=:new,nes=island, neur=nerve, nom=pas- 
ture, nom=law. 

26. Nos=disease, od (ed, ad)=poem, od=road, oid=figure, ol (oliv) 
=:oil, om (omal)=like, nom (onom, onym)=name, ont=:being, oph 
(ophid, ophi)=:serpent, opt (ops)=view, orc=oath, org (organs = instru- 
ment, orn (ornith)=bird, orth=right, ost (osLe)=bone, ox (oxy)=:sharp 
or sour, pap (pop) = father. 



134 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

27. Pas (pan, paiit)=all, patra (parr) = father, path^feeling, pect=: 
comb, ped= child or learning, pat (petal)=expand, petr=rock. phag= 
eat, phan (phen, fan, phas)=appear, phem (phas, phat, phet)=speak, 
pharm (pharmac)=drug, pher (phor)=bear, phil=lover, phleg (phlog) 
:=burn, phou = sound. 

28. Phos (phot)=:light, phras=expression, phren (fren, fran)=mind, 
phthegm (thegm, them)^word or saying, phthong=sound, phys^na- 
ture, phyt=plant or leaf, pir (pirat)=try, plas (plast)=form or spread, 
pneum=air, poie (poe)=make, pol=:se]l, pol=city, pol (poly) = many, 
peir (por)=pierce, pot=drink. 

29. Pons (pod)=foot, pras (pract, prag)=do, prism=sawn, prot= 
first, pseud=:false, psych=:soul, ptom=fallen, pyr=fire, rhe (rho, rhet, 
res)=flow or speak, sal (sauc, seas)=salt, sarc=flesh, scept (skept)= 
doubt, scliism=division, schol=school, sci=shadow, scop=look, len 
(selene)=moon. 

80. Soph=wisdom, sperm=rseed, sphere=globe, stas (stat, stem) = 
standing or weight, stell (stle, stol)=:send, sten = short, stere= solid, 
stich=line, strat=army, stroph= turning, styl=pillar or pen, supr 
(suvr, sovr)=above, syc:==fig, tac (tact)=arrange, techn=art, the=God, 
iherm=warmth, them (thes, thet, thec)=placed. 

81. Tom=cut, tein (ton, tun, thun)=:stretch, top=place, trie (trick, 
trigu)=hair, trech (troch, truck)=run, trop=turn, turb (troub, troop) 
=cro\vd, typ=type, tyr (tyran)=press, zel=zeal, zo (zob)=live, zum 
=ferment. 

WORD SYNTHESIS. 
Word Synthesis is the Composition, or putting to- 
.gether the parts of a word, beginning with a Root, Stem, or 
Theme. 

EXAMPLES. 

From the Theme count are formed successively account, accountable^ 
unaccountable, unaccountdbleness, &c. 

From the Root jla are derived the Stem flag, the Theme flagr, and 
the words flagrate, conflagrate, cojiflagrative, conflagrativeness, &c. 

From the Root sti'U come the Stem struc, the Themes str.uct and 
stroy, and the words destroy^ destructible, indestructible, indestructi- 
bility, &c. 

WORD ANALYSIS. 

Word Analysis is the reverse of Synthesis, and consists 
in separating the parts of a word. 

Systematic Analysis is removing consecutively the 
several Affixes until the Theme, Stem, or Root is found. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 135 

Approximate Analysis is a partial Analysis, con- 
tinued until the Approximate Theme is found. 

Ultimata Analysis is Analysis completed* or continued 
until the R-oot is found. 

Ordinary Students can easily master the Approximate 
Analysis and will find it a very valuable exercise. 

More Advanced Students will find in the Ultimate 

Analysis an exceedingly interesting and profitable study, 

and one sufficiently difficult to give full exercise to their 

powers. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Unconcentrativeness, by dropping the Affixes successively, 
gives concentrativeness, concentrative, concentrate, centrate, and finally 
centre, the Approximate Theme. 

2. Preterclem.oniacally gives demoniacally, demoniacal, demoni- 
ac, and demon, the Approximate theme. 

3. Unexceptionableness gives unexceptionable, exceptionable, 
exception, except, " cept" (Theme), " cep" (Stem), and "ca" (Root). 

4. Transitionally gives transitional, transition, "ition", "if 
(SLem), and "i" (Root). 

DEFINITION. 
Stems and Affixes. When the meanings of a Stem 
and its Affixes are known, it is easy to determine the primary 
or radical meaning of each Derivative from that Stem. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Irresistibility. The Stem sist=stand ; hence resist=:stand 
against; resisti = to be stood against; resistible=able to be stood 
against ; irresistible=inot able to be stood against ; and irresistibility 
=the quality of being not able to be stood against. 

2. Reconsolidativeness. Sol==one ; solid=made one ; solidate 
=make solid ; consolidate=:make solid with ; consolidative=: tending 
to consolidate ; reconso]idative=: tending to consolidate again ; recon- 
solidativenessi=the quality of tending to reconsolidate. 

3. Obesity. Es=eat ; obes=on account of eating; obesity=the 
quality or condition whiclj is on account of eating. 

4. Unreprovability. Reprove = censure ; reprovable= censura- 
ble ; reprovability=the quality of being censurable ; unreprovability 
=the quality of being pot censurable. 

5. Superuncontradistinguisliability. Sting=point or mark; 
stinguish=make a mark; distinguish=to mark apart, or separate; 
contradistinguish = to distinguish against or from ; contradistinguish- 



136 A COMPLETE 8CIENTIFIG OBAMMAR 

able=able to be contradistinguished ; uncontradistinguishable=not 
contradistinguishable ; uncontradistinguishability=the quality of being 
not able to be» contradistinguished ; superuncontradistinguishability 
=the excessive quality of being not able to be contradistinguished. 

Secondary Significations are often derived from 
primary ones by a simple process of variation. 

EXAMPLE. 

The word " stand " signifies 1. To be erect; 2. To be firmly erect ; 
3. To continue erect ; 4. To occupy a place ; 5. To stop or halt ; 6. 
To endure ; 7. To maintain one's ground ; 8. A place of standing ; 
9. A station ; 10. A stop,; 11. A platform ; 12. A small table ; &c. 

ABSTRACTION. 
All Primary SigniJS-Cations are realistic, or mate- 
rial. 

All Abstract or Immaterial significations are sec- 
ondary, or derived. 

EXAMPLE. 

The word virtue is from the stem mr, signifying man. The Suffix 
tut (tude) being added, the word signified manhood, or manliness. 
Then, as military bravery was formerly considered the noblest attribute 
of man, the word came to signify 'bravery or prowess. Afterwards, 
when other qualities were more highly esteemed, the word acquired the 
sense which it now has. 

All Primitive Nouns originally were names of material objects. 

All Primitive Verbs originally denoted actions of material beings. 

ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE. (See Note 17.) 

A Radicle, or Rootlet, is a Significant Elementary 
Sound. 

A Root is a Single Radicle, or a combination of two or 

three Radicles. 

A Stem is a Root or the combination of a Root with a 

Radicle. 

Original "Words. All Words were originally Stems. 

Use. All Stems Ave re at first used indiscriminately as 
Nouns, Verbs, or Adjectives. 

Later Use. At a Later Period some were commonly 
used as Nouns, others as Verbs, and others as Adjectives. 

Modified Use. Afterwards some Nouns were used as 
Prepositions, some Verbs as Conjunctions, and some Adjec- 
tives as Pronouns and Adverbs. 



OF TEE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 137 

The First Inflection used was Reduplication, as 
*' mama ", " papa ", <fcc. 

Other Inflections resulted from joining Prepositions 
to Nouns, Pronouns to Verbs, &c., and from Vowel and 
Consonant changes. 

Interjections are mostly undeveloped Radicles, Roots 
or Stems.. 

Secondary Prepositions, &c. In the next stage, the 
terminations becoming obscure, other Prepositions and 
Pronouns were developed and used with the inflected forms 
of E'ouns and Verbs. 

Dropping of Inflections. Finally the terminations^ 
becoming of little use, have, in modern Languages, been 
mostly dropped. 

Copulas. In almost every Language some one Verb, 
losing partially or wholly its original meaning, has been used 
as a Copula; and in some Languages several Copulas have 
been developed. 

VARIATION. 

Variation is the diversity of words of the same Class 
and Grammatical form, and derived from the same original. 

Origin. Variation commonly, results from derivation 
through different channels. 

EXAMPLE. 

The same word has often come into the English Language directly 
from the Latin, and also indirectly through the French ; and in such 
cases there is generally a double form, as "regal''' and ^'royal'\ &c. 

Methods. Variation is effected in strong Derivatives by the omis- 
sion, insertion, or transmutation of sounds, and in weak derivatives by 
simply varying the Affixes. 

Genera. Variation is of three Genera, 1. Formal, 2. Significant, and 
3. Mixed. 

1st GENUS-FORMAL VARIATION. 
SPECIES.-3. 

1. Graphic Variation is a difference in writing, as 
" plough " and " plow ". 

2. Phonic Variation is a difference in sound, as 
*' either " and " either " (ee-ther and eye-ther). 



138 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

3. Combined Variation is a difference in botti writ- 
ing and sound, as "baptist" and " babtist " ; "cress" and 
"grass"; "kirk" and "church"; "adjunct" and "ad- 
joined ". 

2nd GENUS-SIGNIFICANT VARIATION. 
SPECIES.-2. 

1. Homogeneous Variation is the development of 
different meanings from the same radical meaning, as 
" stancV\ a position, and " sta?id^\ a small table, both from 
" stand ''\ to be erect. 

2. Heterogeneous Variation is a difference of mean- 
ing where the same form has been derived from different 
radical words, as "yet " from " get " and from " etl " (G-r.) ; 
" one '' from " a?ie " and from " o?i " (Fr.) ; " were " from 
" weron " and from " weren " ; " comate " from " mate " and 
from " coma " (L.) ; " render " from " rend " and from " ren- 
dre " (Fr.) ; " own " from " owe " and from " an " ; &c. 

3d GENUS-MIXED VARIATION. 
Mixed Variation is that in which a difference of both 
form and sense has arisen from the same radical word. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Beam and boom; peak and beak; poll and boll; patch and 
botch ; cadence, chance, and case ; canker and cancer ; cant and 
chant; capital and chapter ; chart and card ; compute and count; de- 
clension and declination ; faculty and facility ; fidelitj'^ and fealty ; par- 
cel and particle; provident and prudent; ratio, ration, and reason; 
shell and scale; ship and skiff; swallow and swill; tenth and tithe; 
assay and essay ; procurator and proctor ; procuracy and proxy ; pro- 
pose and purpose ; sleigh and sledge ; rain, reign, and rein ; recognize 
and reconnoitre ; hold and hilt ; cove and cave ; decking and ticking ; 
mount and mound ; corn and grain ; shipper and skipper ; kid and 
goat; hemp and canvas ; host and guest. 

2. Manly and manful ; manliness and manfulness ; rigidness and 
rigidity ; humidness and humidity ; impression, suppression, com- 
pression, expression, repression, depression, oppression, pressure, im- 
pressiveness, expressiveness, impressibility, compressibility ; &c. 

3. Draft and draught ; Kamchatka, Kamtchatka, and Kamtschatka ; 
abatis and abattis ; accouter and accoutre ; ax and axe ; arbor and 
arbour ; &c. 



OF THE EN0LI8H LANG TTAOE. 139 

4. Counter and counter ; divers and divers ; elder and elder ; flatter 
and flatter ; fo'rmer and former ; founder and founder ; render and 
render ; tender and tender. 

DIVERGENCE. 
Divergence is the diversity of words of different Classes, 
from the same original, where one is not derived from the 
other. 

Methods. Divergence is effected in the same manner as 
Variation. 

EXAMPLES. 

Strong Derivatives. Creep and crab : hare and hop ; wolf and 
swallow; bump and bomb ; sweep and swab ; purse and disburse ; have 
and haft ; weave and weft ; sieve and sift ; wave and waft ; shave and 
shape ; &c. 

Weak Derivatives. Careful and carelessly ; duty and duly ; 
greatly and greatness ; extension and extensive ; faithful and fidelity ; 
(fcc. 

t SYNONYMS. 

Synonyms, or Synonymous Words, are words of 
like signification. 

Perfect Synonyms are words which are exactly equiv- 
alent. 

Approximate Synonyms are words which are near- 
ly equivalent. 

Origin. Synonyms have arisen generally from the intro- 
duction of foreign words. 

Paucity. Very few Perfect Synonyms remain in the lan- 
guage. 

Heason. Words originally exactly equivalent to others 
in the language have become obsolete, or have changed their 

meaning. 

APPROXIMATE SYNONYMS. 
CLASSES. 

1. Those differing as Genus and Species ; as " Do " and 
" make " ; "think " and '' believe ". 

2. Those differing in respect to Intensity; as ''See " and 
" look " ; " hear '' and " listen ". 

3. Those differing in respect to Activity ; as " Reasona- 
ble" and "rational ". 



140 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

4. Those differing in respect to Positiveness ; as "Fault" 
and " defect ". 

5. Those differing as separate Species ; as " Shovel " and 
** spade " ; " arms " and " weapons " ; " spear " and " lance " ; 
" pen " and " pencil " ; " come " and " go " ; " lie " and " re- 
cline ". 

6. Those differing as Whole and Part; as " Address" and 
" direction " ; " universe " and " world " ; " region " and 
" district " ; " obey " and " yield " ; " confide " and "believe ". 

7. Those differing in other respects, as " Brute " and 
" beast " ; " consequence " and " result " ; " contest " and 
" conflict " ; " game " and " play " ; " think " and " cogitate ". 

EXERCISES. 

1. Adjective, epithet ; answer, reply ; bravery, courage; bonds, fetters ; 
booty, prey ; behavior, conduct ; custom, habit ; comparison, analogy ; 
dut}'', obligation ; fear,, terror ; fancy, imagination ; haste, hurry ; 
list, catalogue ; manners, address ; negligence, neglect ; news, tidings ; 
occasion, opportunity ; picture, painting ; pillar, column ; populace, 
mob ; posture, attitude ; praise, applause ; robber, thief ; safety, se- 
curity ; shape, form ; talent, genius ; temper, humor ; temple, church ; 
vestige, trace ; vice, sin ; way, road ; word, term. 

Augur, forebode ; bestow, confer ; bring, fetch ; bury, inter ; clothe, 
dress ; . calculate, reckon ; do, make ; divide, separate ; doubt, question ; 
expect, hope ; finish, conclude ; give, grant ; gain, win; have, possess ; 
help, assist ; leave, quit ; chastise, punish ; place, put ; reprove, re- 
buke ; ridicule, deride ; try, attempt; worship, adore. 

Ancient, antique ; clear, distinct ; entire, complete ; exterior, exter- 
nal ; extravagant, profuse ; frail, brittle ; great, big ; heavenly, celes- 
tial ; high, tall ; laudable, praiseworthy ; lucky, fortunate ; mute, 
dumb : new, novel ; particular, peculiar ; prevalent, prevailing ; strong, 
robust; translucent, transparent; weak?, infirm; weighty, heavy; 
whole, entire ; on, upon. 

2. Ability, capacity ; aversion, antipathy ; approval, approbation ; 
burden, load ; chief, head ; consent, assent ; cultivation, culture ; deity, 
divinity; example, instance; facility, ease; faith, belief; falsehood, 
falsity ; force, strength; forgetfulness, oblivion ; afiiiction, grief; hatred, 
odium ; inclination, disposition ; understanding, intellect ; pretence, 
pretext; proposal, proposition; rashness, temerity; reason, cause; 
recovery, restoration ; reformation, reform ; contrition, repentance ; 
smell, odor ; tyranny, oppression ; unity, union ; utility, usefulness ; 
value, worth; veracity, truth. 



OF THE ENGLmn LANG UAGE. 141 

Caution, warn ; defend, protect ; eat, feed ; employ, use ; find, meet 
with ; found, ground ; furnish, supply ; invent, discover ; keep, re- 
tain ; lay, lie ; persevere, persist ; teach, learn ; trust, credit ; waver, 
fluctuate. 

Authentic, genuine ; actual, real ; awkward, clumsy ; apt, fit ; con- 
tented, satisfied ; efficacious, effectual ; efficient, effective ; expert, ex- 
perienced ; fruitful, fertile ; friendly, amicable ; healthy, wholesome ; 
impracticable, impossible ; intolerable, insufferable ; likely, probable ; 
lovely, amiable ; malicious, malignant ; mercantile, commercial ; owing, 
due ; peaceful, peaceable ; poetic, poetical ; ^ reasonable, rational ; 
sociable, social ; salutary, salubrious ; sufficient, enough ; sure, cer- 
tain; thankful, grateful; vacant, empty; warlike, martial; unavoida- 
ble, inevitable. 

3. Act, action ; anguish, agony ; artisan, artist ; compunction, re- 
morse ; diligence, industry ; discernment, penetration ; intention, pur- 
pose ; moment, instant ; necessit}^, need ; obstruction, obstacle ; per- 
tinacity, obstinacy ; persuasion, conviction ; pleasure, happiness ; 
plenty, abundance ; riot, tumult ; servant, slave ; slander, calumny ; 
temperance, abstinence ; vicinity, neighborhood ; wood, forest. 

Alter, change ; be, exist ; confuse, confound ; deprive, bereave ; dis- 
perse, dispel ; enlarge, increase; estimate, esteem ; excite, incite; exert, 
exercise ; forgive, pardon ; grow, become ; hate, detest ; hear, listen ; 
lament, deplore ; overcome, conquer ; perceive, discern ; raise, lift ; re- 
ceive, accept ; remark, observe ; remember, recollect ; reveal, divulge ; 
satisfy, satiate ; see, look ; should, ought ; slake, quench ; surprise, 
astonish ; understand, comprehend. 

Adjacent, contiguous ; contemptible, despicable ; covetous, avari- 
cious ; different, various ; evident, obvious ; forsaken, forlorn ; general, 
universal ; idle, indolent ; miserable, wretched ; modem, recent ; scarce, 
rare; silent, taciturn; wonderful, marvelous. 

Below, beneath ; between, among ; by, with ; frequently, often ; 
immediately, instantly ; middle, midst ; while, whilst. 

4. Despair, hopelessness ; disability, inability ; disbelief, unbelief ; 
freedom, Uberty ; lie, untruth ; allow, permit ; assuage, mitigate ; avoid^ 
shun ; prevent, hinder ; barbarous, inhuman ; defective, faulty ; exces- 
sive, immoderate, 

5. Accent, emphasis ; arms, weapons ; discretion, prudence ; observ- 
ance, observation ; abbreviate, abridge ; avenge, revenge ; contemplate, 
meditate; copy, imitate; dissert, discuss; equivocate, prevaricate; 
foretell, predict ; prevail with, prevail upon ; repeal, revoke ; handsome, 
pretty ; impertinent, insolent ; ludicrous, ridiculous ; mature, ripe ; 
modest, bashful ; between, betwixt ; farther, further. 

6. Address, direction ; articulate, pronounce ; confute, refute ; con- 
jecture, guess ; any, some ; enormous, immense ; little, small. 



142 A COMPLETE 8CIENTIF1G GRAMMAR 

7. Beast, brute ; consequence, result ; contest, conflict ; endurance, 
duration; era, epoch; fault, mistake; idea, notion; method, mode; 
pride, vanity ; advance, proceed ; appear, seem ; compare to, compare 
with ; compare, contrast ; conciliate, reconcile ; decrease, diminish ; go 
back, return ; shall, will ; wake, waken ; all, every, each ; common, 
ordinary ; ferocious, savage ; Grecian, Greek ; ingenious, ingenuous ; 
irksome, tedious ; liable, subject ; alone, only ; almost, nearly ; also, 
likewise, too ; at last, at length ; nevertheless, notwithstanding, 

8. Strife, discord ; changeable, inconstant ; repeat, reiterate ; offen- 
sive, offending ; mercenary, venal ; will, testament ; refuse, deny ; in- 
cessant, unceasing ; electric, electrical ; pleasant, pleasing ; cool, dis- 
passionate ; confident, confiding ; aversion, dislike ; disposal, disposi- 
tion; patient, invalid; doubtful, uncertain; different, unlike; attendant, 
attending. 

Politic, political ; injury, disadvantage ; fervor, ardor ; warmth, 
heat ; abundant, abounding ; deceit, fraud ; heroic, heroical ; faithless, 
unfaithful ; dramatic, dramatical ; worthless, unworthy ; coincident, 
coinciding; weaken, invalidate; comic, comical; flow, gush; intent, 
intense ; fantastic, fantastical ; signification, meaning ; always, ever ; 
attribute, impute ; confess, acknowledge. 

Work, toil ; rock, stone ; spear, lance ; spite, bite ; individual, per- 
son ; ax, hatchet; game, play; cogitate, think: loving, amiable; be- 
lieve, credit ; method, manner ; law, rule ; book, volume ; chair, seat, 
bench ; readable, legible ; intelligent, intelligible ; silent, reticent ; 
amity, friendship ; scholar, student, pupil ; meeting, assembly, congre- 
gation, church ; minister, deacon ; bishop, priest, evangelist, presbyter, 
preacher ; weaver, webster ; spinner, spinster. 

t SPECIALTIES. 

Therefore = for that; and of the same nature are all 
the compounds of therey here, and where, with the Prepo- 
sitions for, in, by, with, on, to, of, &c. 

Heretofore =tofore this— before this. To fore is obso- 
lete except in this word. 

Somewhere = in some what (place). Of the same kind 
are nowhere, elsewhere, anywhere, and everywhere. 

Notwithstanding is the Adverb not, improperly joined 
to the Participle withstanding. The words should be sep- 
arated. 

WTioever= every who; and such are whichever, what- 
ever, whenever, and wherever. 

Whosoever = every such who; and of the same kind 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG JJAGE. 143 

are tlie compounds of soever with whicTi^ what^ whose^ where^ 
when, whence, and Jiow. 

Note. When a word limited by every and used as the 
Antecedent of a Relative is omitted, the every (contracted 
to ever) is attached to the E-elative, thus producing the com- 
pounds whoever, &g. 

Beware is the Copula be improperly joined to the Ad- 
jective ware. 

Metliinks=it thinks (i. e. seems) to me. Me is the 
old Dative Case. 

Whence, Whither, Why, and How are old cases 
of the Relative Pronoun, and are equal respectively to 
^^/rom which ", " to which ", ^^loith which ", and " in lohich ". 

Hitherto is an improper compound, and=to this. 

Yes=Fr. a2/e2:=awes=aye=:have, and is used for " have 
it ", i. e. '' have it so ". 

Nay =Fr. 7ie ayez=^n''ayez=ha.ye not, i. e. " have it not 
so'\ 

No, as a Responsive, =:Fr. ?zo?i=not, and is used for 
'* have not " / &g. 

Hypothesis = supposition = thing placed under (i. e. for 
a support). 

Hypothetical = pertaining to (or like to) a hypothesis. 



PART III.-SYNTAX. 

Syntax is that Part of Grammar which pertains to Sen- 
tences. 

The Divisions of Syntax are Analysis, Synthesis, and 
Ornamentation. 

CHAPTER I.-ANALYSIS. 

Analysis is that part of Syntax which pertains to the 
Nature of Sentences. 

A Sentence is a collection of words expressing an As- 
sertion. 

A Phrase is a collection of words not expressing an 
Assertion, but which may form an Element of a Sentence. 



144 -A COMPLETE 8GIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 

EXAMPLES. 

Summer is pleasant. WiDLer is not always unpleasant. A very large 
house. On the top of a high mountain. The man who lost his horse 
has purchased another one. In the midst of a very earnest and inter- 
esting conversation. 

SECTION I-ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

The Subject of a Sentence is the part of it expressing 
that of which something is asserted, as " Time ", in the sen- 
tence Time is short. 

The Predicate of a Sentence is the part of it expressing 
that which is asserted, as " short ", in the sentence Time is 
short. 

The Copula of a Sentence is the part of it which con- 
nects the Subject with the Predicate, as " is ", in the sen- 
tence Time is short. 

The Subject of Discourse is the thing represented by 
the Subject of a Sentence. 

EXAMPLES. 

Music is delightful. Dissension is not agreeable. Very many per- 
sons certainly are not sufficiently careful of their health. Those boys 
really were very courageous. 

A Modifier is a Word, Phrase or Sentence used to limit 
the meaning of some word, as " great ", in the phrase A great 

fire. 

A Connective is a word or a pair of words used to 

connect two sentences or similar parts of a sentence. 

An Element of a sentence is a single word, or a group 
of words which collectively perform a single office in the 
sentence. 

The Principal Elements of a sentence are the Sub- 
ject, Copula, and Predicate. 

The Subordinate Elements of a sentence are Modi- 
fiers, Conjunctions and Prepositions. 

A Primitive Element is an Element taken without 
its modifiers. 

An Expanded Element is an Element taken with its 
modifiers. 

A Compound Element is one composed of two or 
more Elements united by connectives. 



OF THE ENaLISH LANG UA GE. 145 

A Complicate Element is one containing a Sentence. 
Exclamiations. Interjections, Compellatives, and Ke- 
sponsives are not elements of any Sentence. 

EXAMPLES. 

In the sentence " Those boys are not very diligent ", the word " boys " 
is the Primitive Subject; and the phrase " Tliose boys " is the Ex- 
panded Subject. The word "are "is the Primitive Copula; and the 
phrase "are not "is the Expanded Copula. The word "diligent "is 
the Primitive Predicate; and the phrase "very diligent" is the Ex- 
panded Predicate. 

In the sentence " Honesty and temperance are indispensable virtues ", 
the phrase " Honesty and temperance" is the Compound Primitive 
Subject ; and the phrase " indispensable virtues " is the Simple Expand- 
ed Predicate. The words "and" and "indispensable" are Subordi- 
nate Elements ; the first a Connective, and the other a Modifier. 

EXERCISES. 

Great men are not always destitute of shameful vices. Some great 
men are models of Christian virtue. 

CLASSES OF SENTENCES.-4. 

1. A Sim.ple Sentence is one having a Simple, Non- 
complicate. Subject and Predicate. 

2. A Complex Sentence is one having a Compound 
Subject or Predicate or both, but otherwise like a Simple 
Sentence. 

3. A Compound Sentence is one composed of two 
or more Sentences united by Connectives. 

4. A Complicate Sentence is one having a Sentence 
in its Subject or Predicate or both. 

A Member of a Compound Sentence is one of the Sen- 
tences composing it. 

An Elementary Sentence is one, of any class, used 
as an Element in a Complicate Sentence. 

A Prospective Sentence is one, of any class, which 
looks forward to a following one called its consequent. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Sim.ple Sentences. — Henry is studious. Some boys are very 
vicious. 

2. Complex Sentences. — James and John built a bouse. Iron is 

strong and useful. Joseph and his brother drove out the cattle and 
repaired the fence. 



146 A COMPLETE SGIEWTIFIC GBAMMAE 

3. Compound Sentences.— Art is long; and time is fleeting. 
Gold is yellow; but silver is white. Birds sing sweetly; and little 
flowers bloom gently, 

4. Coniplioate Sentences, — '■' I am ready " was the answer. 
His reply was " I will not go." He said " I am sure of it." James, 
knowing the time had expired, said " It is now too late." 

CLASS l.-SIMPLE SENTENCES. 
0RDERS.-2. 

1. A Copulative Sentence is one whose Subject and 
Predicate are united by a Copula. 

2. A Verbal Sentence is one whose Predicate is a 
Verb, but not a Participle. 

ORDER 1 -COPULATIVE SENTENCES. 
SITB-ORDERS.-S. 

1. An Active Sentence is one whose Predicate is a 
Present Participle. 

2. A Passive Sentence is one whose Predicate is a 
Past Participle. 

3. A Neuter Sentence is one whose Predicate is not 
a Participle. (See Note 16.) 

EXAMPLES. 

The French people are very affable and courteous to strangers. 
Some persons almost always preserve a dignified silence. 
A man's character is known by that of his associates. 
Dr. Livingstone was still pursuing his discoveries in Africa. 
Columbus discovered America in the year 1492, 

GENERA.-2. 

1. An Affirmative Sentence is one which affirms 
something. 

2. A Negative Sentence is one which denies some- 
thing. 

EXAMPLES. 

Virtue is always honorable. Vice is not honorable. 
Thorough culture gives a person very great advantages. 
An educated man will not lack opportunities for usefulness. 

SUB-GENERA.-2. 
1. A Positive Sentence is one expressing an Asser- 
tion positively. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA GE. 147 

2. An Interrogative Sentence is one expressing an 
Assertion interrogatively. 

C0H0RTS.-2. 

1. A Definite Question is one which may be ans- 
wered by yes or no. 

2. An Indefinite Question is one which cannot be 
answered by yes or no. 

SUB-C0H0RTS.-2. 

1. A Direct Question is one in the Interrogative 
form, as " Are you sure ? " 

2. An Indirect Question is one in the Positive form, 
as " You are sure ? " 

EXAMPLES. 

Columbus was not the first discoverer of America. 
Was not Columbus the first discoverer of America ? 
Why were they so long in accomplishing the work % 
Have the Jews many Synagogues in this country % 
They are distinguished for their great learning 1 

SPECIES.-5. 

1. An Indicative Sentence is one expressing a bare 
Assertion not merely hypothetical. 

2. A Subjunctive Sentence is one expressing a 
merely hypothetical Assertion. 

3. An Imperative Sentence is one expressing 'an 
assertion in the form of a command or request. 

4. An Infinitive Sentence is one havmg its Copula 
or Yerb in the Infinitive form. 

5. An Exclamatory Sentence is one commencing 
with How or What^ and used as an Exclamation. 

EXAMPLES. 

Julius Caesar was a very remarkably successful General. 

(If) a man were ever benefited by the use of intoxicating drinks. 

Give to every man the full enjoyment of his rights. 

Him to have an opportunity for justifying his conduct. 

How many persons waste their most precious opportunities ! 

What an amount of mischief one foolish man can do ! 

How hard he tries to become an accurate scholar ! 



148 A COMPLETE SGIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 

PRIMITIVE ELEMENTS. 

The Primitive Subject of a Simple Sentence is a 
Noun or Pronoun. 

The Primitive Copula is some form of the word be 
or am. 

The Prim.itive Predicate is a Noun, Pronoun, Adjec- 
tive, Participle, or Yerb. 

A Primitive Modifier of a Noun is a Noun, Pro- 
noun, Adjective, or Participle. 

A Prim.itive Modifier of a Verb is a Noun, Pronoun, 
or Adverb. 

A Primitive Modifier of an Adjective or Adverb 
is an Adverb. 

CLASS IL-COMPLEX SENTENCES. 
SUB-CLASSES.-3. 

1. A Subjective Sentence is one having a Compound 
Subject. 

2. A Predicative Sentence is one having a Com- 
pound Predicate. 

3. A Mixed Sentence is one having a Compound Sub- 
ject and Predicate. 

ORDERS, SUB-ORDERS, &c. 
The Orders, Sub-Orders, &c. of Complex Sentences 
are the same as those of Simple Sentences. 

EXAMPLES. 

Justice and Mercy are attributes of the Deity. 

They protested, and entreated, and petitioned, and remonstrated in 
vain. 

He and his brother are diligent, faithful, and successful. 

CLASS III-COMPOUND SENTENCES. 
SUB-CLASSES.-3. 

1. A Loose (Compound) Sentence is one whose 
members are connected by absolute Conjunctions, expressed 
or understood. 

2. A Compact Sentence is one whose members are 
connected by Correlative Words, either Conjunctions or 
Adverbs. 



OF TEE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 149 

3. A Close Sentence is one whose members are con- 
nected by Relative Pronouns, or Relative Pronominal 

Adjectives. 

EXAMPLES. 

Labor is honorable ; and industry is profitable to every man. 
Though he was poor, yet by perseverance he accomplished his pur- 
pose. 

They are not always happy, who have great possessions. 

1st SUB-CLASS.-LOOSE SENTENCES. 
DIVISI0NS.-2. 

1. A Normal Loose Sentence is one in which each 
Member is independent of the others. 

2. A Reduced Loose Sentence is one in which a 

part common to the several Members is omitted in all 

except the first. 

SUB-DIVISIONS.-S. 

1. A Direct Loose Sentence is one whose second 
Member is placed after the first. 

2. An Inverted Loose Sentence is one whose 
second Member is placed between the parts of the first. 

3. A Reversed Loose Sentence is one whose 
second Member is placed before the first. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. The second French Empire is overthrown ; and Louis Napoleon is 
dead. 

2. This Monarch obtained hrs crown by violence and fraud, and lost 
it by folly and presumption. 

8. This man owns a large, and that man a very small, farm. 

4. It was wicked I know ; I told him the ship had been lost. 

2iid SUB-CLASS.-COMPACT SENTENCES. 
DIVISI0NS.-3. 

1. A Single Compact Sentence is one having two 
Members connected by one pair of Correlative Words. 

2. A Double Compact Sentence is one in which a 
Single Compact Sentence is united to a Sentence not Com- 
pact by a second pair of Correlative Words. 

3. A Triple Compact Sentence is one composed of 
two Single Compact Sentences united by a third pair of 
Correlative Words. 



150 A COMPLETE SGIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Where confidence is wanting, there friendship is not permanent. 

2. Though the man was honest ; yet when he was accused, then he 
could not readily prove his innocence. 

3. Because when he was at College, he then wasted his time; there- 
fore when a valuable situation was offered to him, then he was entirely 
unable to fill it. 

SUB-DIVISI0NS.-3. 

1. A Direct Compact Sentence is one whose second 

Member is placed after the first. 

2. An Inverted Compact Sentence is one whose 
second Member is placed between the parts of the first, or 
whose first Member is placed between the parts of the 
second. 

3. A Reversed Compact Sentence is one whose 
second Member precedes the first. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Though he was industrious, yet he continued very poor. 

2. He, though he was industrious, continued very poor. 

3. He continued very poor, though he was industrious. 

4. They can, as well as not, return by the same boat. 

5. He could, if he chose, obtain many recommendations. 

6. The men, when they were here, were very sociable. 

7. If I were in his place, I would send an apology. 

8. I v/ould send an apology, if I were in his place. 

SECTI0NS.-2. 

1. An Absolute Sentence is one expressing an as- 
sertion joined' with some related or contrasted assertion, 
but without any Condition. 

2. A Conditional Sentence is one in which one 
member expresses a condition ; and the other expresses an 
assertion depending on that condition. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Though wealth is desirable, yet it is not essential to happiness. 

2. If he is honest, then he will return the money to its owner. 

SUB-SECTI0NS.-2. 
1. A Contingent Sentence is one whose conditional 
part expresses an assertion which may or may not be true. 



OF THE EWGL18R LANGUAGE. 151 

2. A Hypothetical Sentence is one whose condi- 
tional part expresses an assertion which is not true, but is a 
mere supposition. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. If he is guilty of this crime, he deserves severe punishment. 

2. If he were guilty of this crime, he would deserve severe punish- 
ment. 

3d STJB-CLASS.-CLOSE SENTENCES. 
DIVISI0NS.-3. 

1. A Simple Close Sentence is one in which the 
antecedent of the Relative is a single word. 

2. A Complex Close Sentence is one in which the 
antecedent of the Relative is compound. 

3. A Complicate Close Sentence is one in which 
the antecedent of the Relative is a Sentence. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. The persons who were present expressed their approbation. 

2. The merchants, farmers, and mechanics, who were oppressed by 
this law, petitioned for its repeal. 

3. The President vetoed the Bill, which was a mark of his good sense. 

SUB-DIVISI0NS.-3. 

1. A Direct Close Sentence is one whose second 
Member is placed after the first. 

2. An Inverted Close Sentence is one whose second 
Member is placed between the parts of the first. 

3. A Reversed Close Sentence is one whose second 
Member is placed before the first. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. T have just seen the man who lost his fortune by the fire. 

2. The man who lives only for himself is despised by his neighbors. 

3. What I know to be true, that I must constantly affirm. 

CLASS IV.-COMPLICATE SENTENCES. 
SUB-CLASSES.-2. 

1. A Simple Complicate Sentence is one havmg a 
simple Subject and Predicate. 

2. A Complex Complicate Sentence is one having 
a Compound Subject or Predicate or both. 



152 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC QBAMMAB 

DIVISI0NS.-3. 

1. A Subjective Complicate Sentence is one having 
a compound Subject. 

2. A Predicative Complicate Sentence is one 
having a compound Predicate. 

3. A Mixed Complicate Sentence is one having a 
compound Subject and Predicate. 

SUB-DIVISI0NS.-3, 

1. A Co-Subjective Sentence is one having a Com- 
plicate Subject. 

2. A Co-Predicative Sentence is one having a Com- 
plicate Predicate. 

3. A Co-Mixed Sentence is one having a Complicate 
Subject and Predicate. 

SECTI0NS.-3. 

1. A Primary Complicate Sentence is one whose 
Elementary Sentence is a Principal Element. 

2. A Secondary Complicate Sentence is one 
whose Elementary Sentence is a Subordinate Element. 

3. A Composite Complicate Sentence is one having 
Principal and Subordinate Elementary Sentences. 

Note. — Elementary Sentences and Members of Com- 
pound Sentences should be analyzed in the same manner as 
other sentences. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. " Time and tide will wait for no man " is a common proverb. 

2. His answer was " I will not be an instrument of such meanness." 

3. The Fox, pretending that he did not care, said " Those grapes are 
sour." 

4 Henry and William said they would not undertake the business. 

5. That they did not go was evidence and demonstration that they 
meant what they said. 

6. I wish that they were better qualified for their positions. 

7. I wish that he had been more careful in the search. 

8. "I don't know " and " I don't care " are common expressions. 

SECTION II.-ANALYSIS OF PHRASES. 
The Base of a Phrase is the principal word in it. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 153 

The Elements of a Phrase are the Base and its 
Modifiers. 

CLASSES OF PHRASES.-4. 

1. A Simple Phrase is one whose Elements are all 
simple. 

2. A Com.plex Phrase is one containing a Compomid 
Element. 

3. A Com.pound Phrase is one composed of two or 
more Phrases united by Connectives. 

4. A Com.plicate Phrase is one having a Sentence in 
one of its Elements. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Great men. 2. Many persons. 3. In haste. 4. Very good. 5. 
Six little boys. 6. Sings sweetly. 7 On the table. 8. Beautiful 
hills and valleys. 9. With patience and care. 10. Carefully and cor- 
rectly written. 11. Large books and small books. 12. Over the moun- 
tain and over the moor. 13. Neither in this way nor in that way. 14. 
Saying "It is true." 15. The sentence "Gold is yellow." 16. The 
usual " I thank you." 

SIMPLE PHRASES. -SUB-CLASSES.-2. 

1. A Primary Sim.ple Phrase is one whose Ele- 
ments are Single Words. 

2. A Secondary Sim.ple Phrase is one some of 
whose Elements are Phrases. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Short lessons. 2. Faithful students. 8. Three -large white 
houses. 4. The end of the street. 5. Very great fortunes. 

COMPLEX PHRASES.-STJB-CLASSES.-3. 

1. A Basic Com.plex Phrase is one having a Com- 
pound Base. 

2. An Adjunctive Complex Phrase is one having 
a Compound Modifier. 

3. A Mixed Complex Phrase is one having a Com- 
pound Base and a Compound Modifier. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Many books and papers. 2. Strong and cogent reasons. 3. 
Young aiid thoughtless boys and girls. 4. On sea and land. 



154 A complete: scientific grammar 

COMPOUND PHUASES-STTB-CLASSES-S. 

1. A liOOSe Phrase is one whose Members are united 
by Absolute Conjunctions. 

2. A Compact Phrase is one whose Members are 
united by Correlative Words. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Very large and very heavy. 2. Quite curious indeed, but per- 
fectly useless. 3. Neither by land nor by sea. 4. Either in this way 

or in that way. 5. A large fine house and a poor old barn. 

COMPLICATE PHRASES.-SUB-CLASSES,-2. 

1. A Simple Com.plicate Phrase is one having a 
Simple Base and Simple Modifiers. 

2. A Complex Complicate Phrase is one having a 
Compound Base, or Compound Modifiers, or both. 

COMPLEX COMPLICATE PHRASES.-DIVISI0NS.-3. 

1. A Basic Phrase is one having a Compound Base. 

2. An Adjunctive Phrase is one having a Compound 

Modifier. 

3. A Mixed Phrase is one having a Compound Base 

and a Compound Modifier. 

SUB-DIVISI0NS.-3. 

1. A Primary Complicate Phrase is one whose 
Base is a Sentence. 

2. A Secondary Complicate Phrase is one having 
a Sentence used as a Modifier. 

3. A Composite Complicate Phrase is one having 

a Sentence for its Base, and another Sentence used as a 

Modifier. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. A prompt " I will try." 2. The sentence " Time is short." 

3. With " We will go " and " They will come." 4. The sentences 

" Art is long " and " Time is fleeting." 5. The pretense and cry of 

" The wolf is coming " 6. Saying " Excuse me " and " I am sorry," 

7. The hearty "Fare you well" and "Come again." 8. Saying and 

writing " We are ready " and ''■ You shall have it." 

9. The *' I will go " of the sentence " I tell you ' I will go.' " 

10. The usual in such cases " I thank you." 

11, The uttered in haste " Do not follow me.'' 



OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 155 

SPECIES-IO. 

1. A Substantive Phrase is one whose base is a 
Koun. 

2. An Adjective Phrase is one whose base is an Ad- 
jective. 

3. A Pronominal Phrase is one whose base is a 
Pronoun. 

4. A Copulative Phrase is one whose base is a 
Copula. 

6. A Verbal Phrase is one whose base is a Verb. 

6. A Participial Phrase is one whose base is a Par- 
ticiple. 

7. An Infinitive Phrase is one whose base is an In- 
finitive Form. 

8. An Adverbial Phrase is one whose base is an 
Adverb. 

9. A Prepositional Phrase is one whose base is a 
Preposition. (See Note 19.) 

10. A Sentential Phrase is one whose base is a Sen- 
tence. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. A very short time. 2. Extremely useful. 3. Wretched me. 

4. Certainly is not. 5. More commonly think. 

6. So extremely well. 7. On the rugged mountains. 

8. Considering these circumstances. 9. Less accurately reasoning. 
10. Very improperly spoken. 11. To write correctly. 
12. To spell common' words. 13. Frequently to be. 
14. The expression " Lead is heavy." 15, To say " I am sorry." 

USES OF PHRASES. 

1. A Substantive Phrase is used as a Subject, Pred- 
icate, Modifier, or Exclamation. 

2. An Adjective Phrase is used as a Modifier or as a 
Predicate. 

3. A Pronominal Phrase has the same uses as a Sub- 
stantive Phrase. 

4. A Copulative Phrase is used as a Copula. 

5. A Verbal Phrase is used as a Predicate. 



166 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

6. A Participial Phrase is used as a Predicate, Mod- 
ifier, or Contraction. 

7. An InJ^nitive Phrase is used as a Predicate in a 
Contracted Sentence. 

8. An Adverbial Phrase is used as a Modifier. 

9. A Prepositional Phrase is used as a Modifier. 
10. A Sentential Phrase has the same uses as a Sub- 
stantive Phrase. 

SECTION III-TRANSFORMATION. 

Transformation is changing the structure of a sentence 
without materially changing its meaning. 

The Methods of Transformation are Conversion, 
Contraction and Expansion. 

An Objective Sentence is one whose verb has an 
Object. 

A Double-Objective Sentence is one whose verb is 
followed by two words, either of which may be its Object, 
if a Preposition is supplied before the other. 

Corresponding Sentences are equivalent sentences 
of difierent Orders. 

1st METHOD.-CONVERSION. 

Conversion is changing a senteuce of either Order to 
an equivalent sentence of the other Order. 

MODES OF CONVERSION. -4. 

1. Verbal to Active Sentence. Rule. Substitute 
for the Verb its Present Participle with a Copula of the same 
Tense as the Verb. 

2. Active to Verbal Sentence. Rule. Reverse the 
preceding process. 

3. Verbal to Passive Sentence. Rule. Substitute 
for the Verb its Past Participle, with a Copula of the same 
Tense as the Verb ; take the Object of the Verb for a 
Subject, changing its Case if necessary ; and take the Sub- 
ject of the Verb for the Object of the Preposition " by" in- 
serted, changing its Case if necessary. 

4. Passive to Verbal Sentence. Rule. Reverse 
the preceding process. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE, 157 

EXAMPLES. 

(Normal.) He deceives his brother. 

(Equivalent Active.) He is deceiving his brother. 
(Equivalent Passive.) His brother is deceived by him. 

2. 

They taught him grammar. 
(1st Normal.) They taught him (in) grammar. 

(1st Equiv. Active.) They were teaching him (in) grammar. 
(1st Equiv. Passive.) He was taught (in) grammar by them. 
(2nd Noi'mal.) They taught (to) him grammar. 

(2nd Equiv. Active.) They were teaching (to) him grammar. 
(2nd Equiv. Passive ) Grammar was taught (to) him by them. 

EXERCISES. (To be transformed as above.) 

1. John relieved him. 2. Henry found a knife. 3. I was assisted by 
him. 

4. They were asking him. 5. Joseph was instructing John. 

6. He refused me this privilege. 7. They were paid a premium. 

8. "We asked him his opinion. 9. They call him John. 

10. He was named Caesar by his friend. 11. Thomas will show him 
the way. 

12. I can furnish him sufficient proof. 13. I will credit him ten 
dollars. 

14. He charged the man a great price. 15. No one will excuse him 
that fault. 

2nd METHOD.-CONTRACTIOK 
Contraction is the abbreviation, or shortening of Sen- 
tences. 

Note. Nearly all sentences are more or less contracted ; 
but in the Colloquial Style more Contractions occur than in 
any other ; and the Analysis of Colloquial Language is 
therefore more difficult than any other. 

MODES OF C0NTIlACTI0]Sr.-2. 

1. Contraction by Omission is simply leaving out 
such words as can readily be supplied. 

2. Contraction by Substitution is substituting a 
short expression for a longer one without changing the 
sense. 



158 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

1st MODE OF CONTRACTION-OMISSION. 
Parts Omitted. Any part of a sentence may some- 
times be omitted. 

EXAMPLES OF OMISSION. 

(The Curves in these Examples include words which may be omitted.) 

1. A ModiflLed Noun. This (book) is my book. That (horse) is 
John's horse. He left his own hat, and took William's (hat.) 

2. A Modifier. He had a beautiful house ; and that (beautiful) 
house was burned. He speaks (very readily) and writes very readily. 
He had a little black Canadian pony ; and he sold that (little black 
Canadian) pony for a hundred dollars. 

3. An Object of a Verb or Preposition, Thomas is plowing (a 
field). He mows (grass) well. He put his hat on (his head). 

4. A Subject of a Sentence. Come (you) and see this picture. 
Harvey writes well, and (he) speaks fluently. 

5. A Predicate. John will go ; and James also (will go). 
Henry returned sooner than Martin (returned soon). 

6. A Copula. His voice is weak ; his hand (is) tremulous ; and 
his cheek (is) pale. 

7. A Subject and Copula. He is able ; but (he is) not willing. 

8. A Copula and Predicate. Mary was ready before Susan (was 
ready). 

9. A Subject, Copula, and Predicate. They are striving ; 
but (they are striving) in vain. 

10. A Preposition. He gave (to) me a book. 

They are hoping for honor, (for) wealth, and (for) preferment. 

11. A Conjunction. Thomas, (and) John, (and) Henry, and 
Charles went. 

12. Correlative Words. When he had finished the work, (then) 
he returned. 

(Therefore) I pursued these studies, because they were very delight- 
ful. 

(Though he was) a professed Catholic, (yet) he imprisoned the Pope. 

(Because he was) weary from labor, (therefore) he sought repose 
early. 

13. A Member of a Compound Sentence. A man came to 
me in a very excited manner ; and I asked the man (who cam© to me 
in a very excited manner) what was the cause of his agitation. 

The farmer prepares the soil; and (when he has prepared the soil)^ 
then he sows the seed. 

14. Nearly a Whole Sentence. Q. Who owns that beautiful 
white house upon the hill yonder ] Ans. David Jones (owns that beau- 
tiful white house upon the hill yonder). 



OF TEE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 159 

Q. How do you think such a proposition as that which I have sug- 
gested would be received by your poHtical friends *? 

Ans. (I think such a proposition as that W'hich you have suggested 
would be received by my political friends) favorably. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Those ( ) are beautiful horses. Instead of good articles he has 
sent ( ) me these ( ). Having lost his own ball, he has taken Henry's 
( ). John is chopping ( ) ; David is reading ( ) ; Mary is spinning ( ) ; 
and Susan has just put the kettle on ( ). 

Hear ( ) the birds sing ( ). What ( ) did he say ] ( ) Nothing. 
This book is larger ( ) than that ( ). He gave ( ) them ( ) money. 
Herman has arrived ; and Edward too ( ), 

2. The flowers are gone ; ( ) the trees ( ) bare ; and the ground ( ) 
white. 

They are ( ) in the house. The leaves are ( ) on the trees. 
Those people are ( ) in great distress. The man is not ( ) there. 
There is ( ) no remedy. There is ( ) no proof of his guilt. 
Walter is as large as Humphrey ( ). Owen has more money than 
David ( ). Gold is worth more ( ) than Iron ( ). 

3. They are making great efforts ; but ( ) to no purpose. 

We have been making great sacrifices ; but ( ) not unwillingly. 

( ) A pretended philanthropist, ( ) he oppresses the poor. 

Let ( ) them ( ) be persuaded of his honesty ; and ( ) then they will 
trust him. 

Who was Commander in Chief of the American Armies during the 
Revolutionary War 1 Geo. Washington ( ). 

2nd MODE OF CONTRACTION.-SUBSTITUTION. 

1. Contraction of Compact Sentences. In Com- 
pact Sentences a Participle is often substituted for a Tense 
Form, as a Sign of Contraction, when tlie Correlatives are 
omitted ; and in this case the Subject of the first or second 
Member is frequently omitted. 

2. Contraction of Close Sentences. In Close Sen- 
tences a Participle is often substituted for a Tense Form, 
as a sign of Contraction, when the Relative is omitted. 

3. Contraction of Elementary Sentences. In 
Elementary Sentences an Infinitive or a Participle is often 
substituted for a Tense Form, as a sign of Contraction, 
when a preceding " that ^' is omitted ; and an Infinitive is 
never use:! for any other purpose. 



160 A COMPLETE 8GIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 

4. The Subject of an Infinitive Sentence takes 
tlie form of the Objective Case, when possible, and is often 
omitted. 

5. Subject •with a Participle. In an Elementary 
sentence, when a Participle is substituted, the Subject takes 
the form of the Objective or Possessive Case. 

EXAMPLES OF SUBSTITUTIOK 

1. A Pronoun for a Noun. 

a. Llewellyn was rash ; and Llewellyn bitterly regretted Llewellyn's 
rashness. 

b. Llewellyn was rash ; and he bitterly regretted his rashness. 

2. A Pronoun for a Phrase. 

a. The three strange gentlemen said that the three strange gentlemen 
had lost the three strange gentlemen's way. 

b. The three strange gentlemen said that they had lost their way. 

3. A Pronoun for a Sentence. 

a. The speaker said that in his youth he had been induced to engage 
in some mischievous pranks, and that he now remembered that in his 
youth he had been induced to engage in some rnischievous pranks with 
much regrel. 

b. The speaker said that in his youth he had been induced to en- 
gage in some mischievous pranks, and that he now remembered it with 
much regret. 

a. They at first made sport of the old man ; and that they at first 
made sport of the old man afterwards cost them much sorrow. 

b. They at first made sport of the old man, which afterwards cost 
them much sorrow. 

4. An Adjective for a Phrase, 

a. He is a man of prudence. 

b. He is a prudent man. 

5. An Adjective for a Sentence. 

a. She has a dress which is made of wool. 

b. She has a woolen dress. 

a. That is a statement which may be questioned. 

b. That is a questionable statement. 

6. An Adverb for a Phrase. 

a. Columbus sailed in a westerly direction. 

b. Columbus sailed westward. 

7. A Complex for a Compound Sentence. 

a. They talked ; and they laughed; and they played. 

b. They talked and laughed and played. 

a. John wrote; and his brother wrote; and his friends wrote. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 161 

b. John and his brother and his friends wrote. 

8. A General Term for several Specific Terms. 

a. The men and the women and the children all forsook the place. 

b. The people all forsook the place. 

9. An Exclamation for a Sentence, 

Do you think he will go'? Yes.=I think he will go. 
Have you seen him 1 No.=:I have not seen him. 

10. A Participle for a Tense Form,— Subject and Correl- 
atives omitted. 

a. When the man shall accomplish this purpose, then he will be de- . 
lighted. 

b. The man, accomplishing this purpose, will be delighted. 

a. When he shall have finished his studies, then he will graduate. 

b. Having finished his studies, he will graduate, 

a. When he shall finish his studies, then he will graduate. 

b. Finishing his studies, he will graduate. 

a. When he had finished his studies, then he graduated. 

b. Having finished his studies, he graduated. 

a. When he finished his studies, then he graduated. 

b. Finishing his studies, he graduated. 

a. Because he has finished his studies, therefore he now graduates. 

b. Having finished his studies, he now graduates. 

a. Because he finishes his studies now, therefore he graduates now. 

b. Finishing his studies now, he graduates now. 

a. When one General had failed, then another undertook the enter- 
prise. 

b. One General having failed, another undertook the enterprise. 

11. An Infinitive for a Tense Form,— "that " omitted, &c. 

a. He would not permit that they should go. 

b. He would not permit them to go. 

a. They suspected that he had done this mischief. 

b. They suspected him to have done this mischief. 
a. He asked ( ) that I should undertake this work. 
b; He asked ( ) me to undertake this work. 

a. They wished that they might go. 

b. They wished themselves to go. 

c. They wished ( ) to go. 

a. That one should decide a case before hearing it is unjust. 

b. To decide a case before hearing it is unjust. 

a. They asked ( ) him that he should assist them. 

b. They asked ( ) him himself to assist them. 

c. They asked ( ) him ( ) to assist them. 

a. That one should le good is better than that one should seem ( ) 
good. 



162 A GOMPLETE SGIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 

b. To he good is better than to seem good. 

a. They believe that he did (or that he has done) this thing. 

b. They believe him to have done this thing. 

a. They think that he is injuring them. 

b. They think him to be injuring them. 

a. They thought that he was injuring them. 

b. They thought him to be injuring them. 

12, A Participle for a Tense Form,— "that " omitted, &c, 

a. I have fears ( ) that rain will fall before ( ) I ( ) reach home. 

b. I have fears of rain falling before I reach home. 

a. He suspects that ( ) the man is dishonest. 

b. He suspects the man being dishonest. 

c. He suspects the man's being dishonest. 

a. There is no danger ( ) that ( ) he will neglect his duty. 

b. There is no danger of him neglecting his duty. 

c. There is no danger of his neglecting his duty. 

a. We do not fear that ( ) they will desert their post. 

b. We do not fear them deserting their post. 

c. We do not fear their deserting their post. 

13, A Participle for a Tense Form,— a Relative being 
omitted. 

a. Those men who desire preferment should make themselves worthy 
of it. 

b. Those men desiring preferment should make themselves worthy 
of it. 

a. On the time in which we arrived at the gate we found the porter 
asleep. 

b. On arriving at the gate we found the porter asleep. 

EXERCISES. 

1. If some people would mind some people's own business, it would 
be better for some people. 

2. Mr. John Smith built a large brick house ; and Mr. J. Smith sold 
the large brick house. 

3. They told him that his brother was dead ; and when he heard 
that his brother was dead, he fainted. 

4. Prof. Agassiz was a man of very great learning. 

5. That is an assertion which admits of doubt. 

6. He did the work in a very faithful manner. 

7. John studied Latin ; and Thomas studied Latin ; and William 
studied Latin. 

8. The corn and the wheat and the rye and the barley and the oats 
and the apples were all harvested. 



OF TEE ENGLISH LANG UA GE. 163 

9. Will they come and see us to-morrow 1 They will come and see 
us to-morrow. 

10. When they had defeated the enemy, they proceeded to despoil 
the country. 

11. They hoped that they might find some relics of the ancient peo- 
ple. 

12. I have little hope that he will pay the money according to his 
promise. 

13. Those who expect to become learned should not waste their 
time. 

3d METHOD-EXPANSION. 

Expansion is tlie reverse of Contraction, and consists in 
supplying omissions, and in substituting full forms for con- 
tracted ones. 

The Use of Expansion, in Analysis, is to discover 
the relations of the words which are expressed. 

EXAMPLES. 

a. No sleep till morn, when youth and pleasure meet 
To chase the glowing hours with flying feet. 

b. No sleep (will then be had) till morn, when youth and pleasure 

meet 
(For themselves) to chase the glowing hours with flying feet. 
!Note. For other Examples, take in reversed order, those under Sub- 
stitution. 

EXERCISES. 

1. He wished to visit England, but had not the means. 

2. They asked him to resign ; but he refused. 

3. It is better to suffer wrong than to do wrong. 

4. " Better late than never" is not so good a motto as " Better never 
late.*" 

5. Neglecting this opportunity, it was impossible to escape. 

6. Driven to despair by his misfortunes, he attempted to destroy him- 
self. 

7. The more money one has, the more he usually desires. 

8. The man said he lost one horse, not three ; and that a poor one. 

9. He knows to sing and build the lofty rhyme. 

10. Why not tell us where, and when, and why, and how the deed 1 

ORDER OF ANALYSIS. 
The Proper Order in analysing a sentence is to deter- 
mine 1. The Class; 2. The Sub-Class; 3. The Division; 4. 
The Sub-Division ; 5. The Section ; 6. The Sub-Section ; 7» 



164 A COMPLETE SGIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 

The Order; 8. The Sub-Order; 9. The Genus; 10. The 
Sub-Genus; 11. The Cohort; 12. The Sub-Cohort; 13. The 
Species ; 14. The Elements (Primitive and E xpanded) ; 
15. The Phrases ; 16. The Elements of the Phrases. (See 
the Chart.) 

PARSING. 

Parsing (or Parting, from Lat. Pars) is the Analysis of 
the Elements of a Sentence, beginning with individual 
words. 

The Things to be done in parsing a word are three ; 
viz. : 

1. To refer the word to its proper Class, Sub- Class, &c. ; 

2. To name its Inflectional form (if it has any Inflection) ; 

3. To point out its Use, or its Relation to the other words 
of the Sentence. 

Note. The reason for each step in classing a word, and 
the Rule for its Inflectional Form may be given until the 
Definitions and Rules are familiar. 

The Proper Order of Parsing a word is to determine 
1. Its Class ; 2. Its Form ; 3. Its Use. 

The Purposes of Parsing are usually three ; viz. : 

1. To ascertain the meaning of Sentences ; 

2. To discover whether Sentences are correct or not ; 

3. To develop the powers of the mind. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Him saw they not. 2. Them feared not he. 3. Whom knew I 
then the same to be. 4. This man, than whom none higher stood in 
estimation of the King, became the instrument of death. 

Note, By parsing the words in the first Example we ascertain that 
the word " Him", although it stands before the Verb " saw" is not the 
Subject of "saw", since it is the Objective Case of the Pronoun, while 
" saw " is not an Infinitive Form. Also that the word " they ", although 
it stands after the Verb " saw " is not the Object of " saw ", since it is 
the Nominative Case, Hence this Sentence is inverted ; and the mean- 
ing of it is " They saw not him." Such inversions are common, espe- 
cially in Poetry and Oratory. 

In the 3d Example the words read much more smoothly than if 
they were arranged " I then knew whom to be the same " ; but it is 
easily discovered, by Parsing, that the meaning must be the same. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 165 

In the 4th Example the word " whom ", being the Objective Case, 
ought to be the Object of some Verb or Preposition, or the Subject of 
an Infinitive. Since, however, it is neither of these, but tlie Subject of 
the Verb " Stood " (understood), it is evident that the Sentence is in- 
correct; and that the form *' whom " should be altered to "who". 
So also in the passage from Milton, " Satan, than whom none higher 
sat, &C-"; and Mat. 16 : 15, "Whom say ye that I am ? " &c. 

MODELS OF ANALYSIS AND PARSING. (See Note 21.) 

1. The Farmer's horses are feeding in his pasture. 

Analysis. 

This is a Simple, Copulative, Active, Affirmative, Posi- 
tive, Indicative Sentence. 

The Expanded Subject is " The farmer's horses ". 

The Primitive Subject is " horses ". 

The Copula is " are ". 

The Expanded Predicate is " feeding in his pasture ". 

The Primitive Predicate is " feeding." 

The Expanded Modifier of *^ horses " is " The farmer's ", 
a Simple Substantive Phrase. 

The Primitive Modifier cf " horses " is ^' farmer's ". 

The Primitive Modifier of " feeding " is " in his pasture ", 
a Simple Prepositional Phrase. 

The Expanded Object of " in " is *' his pasture ". 

The Primitive Object of " in " is " pasture ". 

The Primitive Modifier of " pasture ^' is " his ". 

Parsing. 

The word "The" is (1.) the Definite Article ; and (3.) it 
limits " farmer's ' '. 

"Farmer's" is (1.) a Common Full Noun; (2.) of the 
Masculine Gender, Singular Number, Possessive Case, and 
(3.) is used to modify " horses". 

"Horses" is (1.) a Noun, Common, Defective, Doubtful; 
(2.) of the Plural Number, the Stem ; and (3.) it is used as 
the Subject of " feeding ". 

" Are" is (1.) a Copula (Principal Parts Am, Was, Been), 
(2.) of the Present Tense, Plural Number, and (3.) is used 



166 A COMPLETE 8GIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 

to connect the Subject " horses" with the Predicate '' feed- 
ing ". 

"Feeding" is the Present Participle of the Yerb "feed " 
and used as the Predicate of " horses ". 

" In '' is (1.) a Simple Substantive Preposition, and (3.) is, 
used to show the relation between '' feeding '^ and " pasture ". 

"His" is (1.) a Personal Pronoun, (2.) of the Third Per- 
son, Singular Number, Masculine G-ender, Possessive Case, 
and (3.) is used to limit " pasture ". 

" Pasture " is (1.) a .Common Defective Neuter Noun, 
(2.) of the Singular Number, the Stem, and (3.) is used as 
the Object of the Preposition " in ". 

2. Joseph and JSenry could not find the oxen. 

Analysis. 

This is a Complex, Subjective, Verbal, Negative, Posi- 
tive, Indicative Sentence. 

The Compound Subject is "Joseph and Henry", a Sim- 
ple Substantive Phrase. 

The Simple Expanded Predicate is " could not find the 
oxen ", a Simple Verbal Phrase. 

The Primitive Predicate is " could find ". 

The Modifiers of "could find" are "not" and "the 
oxen ". 

The Expanded Object of" could find " is " the oxen". 

The Primitive Object of" could find" is " oxen". 

The Primitive Modifier of " oxen " is " the ". 

Parsing. 

"Joseph" is (1.) a Noun, Proper, Full, (2.) Masc. Gen., 
Sing. Num., the Stem, and (3.)»is used as a part of the Sub- 
ject of " could find ". 

" And" is (1.) an Absolute Conjunction, and (3.) is used 
to connect "Joseph" with "Henry." 

" Henry " is parsed like " Joseph." 

" Could find " is (1.) an Irregular Verb, (Prin. Parts 
Find, Found, Found), (2.) Indefinite Tense, the Stem, and 
(3.) is used as the predicate of " Joseph and Henry." 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 167 

"Not " is (1.) an Adverb, of Negation, and (3) is used to 
modify " could find." 

" Oxen " is (1.) a Common Defective Masculine Noun, 
(2) Plur., Stem, and (3.) is used as the Object of " could 
find." 

3. Nations have perished ; and hingdonis have gone to 

decay 

Analysis. 

This Sentence is Compound, Loose, Normal, Direct. 

The First Member is " Nations have perished." 

The Second Member is " kingdoms have gone to decay." 

The Connective is the word " and." 

4. Se studies the intrests of his employer ^ aud discharges 

all his duties faithfully. 

Analysis. 

This Sentence is Compound, Loose, Reduced, Direct. 

The First Member is " He studies the interests of his em- 
ployer." 

The omitted Subject of the Second Member is " he." 

The Second Member is " (he) discharges all his duties 
faithfully." 

5. Whe7i the weather is good, then we usually walk in the 
fields. 

Analysis. 

This Sentence is Compound, Compact, Single, Reversed, 

Absolute. 

The Correlatives are " When " and " then." 
The Second Member is " When the weather is good." 
The First Member is " then we usually walk in the fields." 
The Connective is the pair of Correlatives, *' When " and 

" then." 

Parsing. 

The word " when" is (1.) an Adverb of Time, and (3.) is 
used to limit the Copula " is ", and also, by its relation to 
" then ", to connect the two Members of the Compact Sen- 
tence. 

The word "then "is (1.) an Adverb of Time, and (3.) is 



168 ^ COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAB 

used to limit the Yerb " walk ", and also, by its relation to 
''when", to connect the two members. 

6. If the weather prove favorable^ then I shall return to- 
morrow. 

Analysis. 

This Sentence is Compound, Compact, Single, Reversed, 
Conditional, Contingent. 

The Correlatives connecting the Members are " If" and 

"then." 

The Second Member is " the weather (shall) prove favor- 
able." 

The First Member is " I shall return to-morrow." 

The Sentence constituting the First member is Simple, 
Verbal, Affirmative, Positive, Indicative. 

That forming the Second Member is of the same kind. 

Parsing. 

The word " If" is (1.) a Conjunction, Relative, Correlative 
of " then ", and (3.) is used to introduce the Condition, and 
to connect the two Members. 

The word " then " is (1.) a Conjunction, Relative, Correla- 
tive of " if", and (3.) is used to iatroduce the Conditional As- 
sertion, and also to connect the two Members. 

7. If I loere sure of a welcome^ I would call upon him. 

Analysis. 

This Sentence is Compound, Compact, Single, Reversed, 
Conditional, Hypothetical. 

The word "then ", correlative of " if" is understood. 

The Sentence "I were sure of a welcome," constituting 
the second Member, is Simple, Copulative, Neuter, Affirm- 
ative, Positive, Subjunctive. 

Parsing. 

The word " were " is (1.) a Copula, (2.) Hypothetical 
Tense, the Stem, and (3.) connects the Subject "I" with 
the Predicate " sure." 

8. i/ / saw any reason for going, then J would go. 

Analysis. 
This Sentence is Compound, Compact, Single, Reversed, 
Conditional, Hypothetical. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 169 

The Sentence " I saw any reason for going," constituting 
tlae Second Member, is Simple, Verbal, Affirmative, Posi- 
tive, Subjunctive. 

Parsing. 

The word " saw " is (1.) a Verb, Irregular, (Prin. Parts 
See, saw, seen), (2.) Past Tense, Stem, and (3.) is usjed in- 
stead of a Hypothetical Tense, as the Predicate of " I." 

9. If that { ) be soj { ) his case is hopeless. 
This Sentence is Contingent. 

Parsing. 
The word "be" is a Copula, Present Tense, the Stem, 
and connects the word " thing " understood with " so." 
The word "so" (=such) is an Adjective, and is used as the 
Predicate of" thing." 

10. If John comes home^ he will receive a farm. 

In this Sentence the Present " comes " is used for the 
Future " shall come." 

11. If you came here oftener, it would he for your advan- 
tage. 

In this Sentence the Past " came " is used for the Indefi- 
nite "should come." 

12. If William had written the letter before the news came, 
he is excusable. 

This Sentence is Contingent; and "had written " is sim- 
ply the Compound Past Tense, Stem. 

13. If JVilliam. had written the letter before the news came 
he woidd have been excusable. 

This Sentence is Hypothetical; and "had written" is 
used instead of a Compound Hypothetical Tense. 

14. If he had been there^ he would have prevented it. 

This Sentence is Hypothetical ; and " had been " is used 
instead of a Compound Hypothetical Tense. 

15 If v)hen he was young^ he had improved his opportun- 
ities^ the?i, lohen he was old, he would not have been despised. 

This Sentence is Compound, Compact, Triple, Reversed, 
Conditional, Hypothetical. 

16. Therefore^ indeed, he returned the Watch, for it was a 
thing of little value y but therefore he did not return the 
Diamonds, for they v^ere things of very great value. 



170 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GBAMMAR 

This Sentence is Compound, Compact, Triple, Direct 
Absolute. 

The first Single Compact Sentence is " Therefore he re- 
turned the Watch, for it was a thing of little value ". Its 
Correlatives are " Therefore " and " for ". 

The second Single Compact Sentence is " therefore he 
did not return the Diamonds, for they were things of very- 
great value ". 

Its Correlatives are also " therefore " and " for ". 

The Correlatives uniting the two Single Compact Senten- 
ces are " indeed" and "but ". 

17. I have seen the man icho fell from the roof 

Analysis. 

This Sentence is Compound, Close, Simple, Direct. 

The first Member is " I have seen the man ". 

The second Member is " who fell from the roof ". 

The Connective is the word " who ". 

Parsing. 

The word " who " is (1.) a Pronoun, Relative, relating to 
man, (2.) Nominative Case, and (3.) is used as the Subject 
of "fell", and also, by its relation to man, to connect the 
two Members. 

18. The man who lost his horse has bought anothr. 

This Sentence is Compound, Close, Simple, Inverted. 

The first Member is " The man has bought another 

(horse) ". 

The second Member is '* who lost his horse " 

This Member is placed between the parts of the first in 
order to bring the Relative Pronoun " who " as near as pos- 
sible to its Antecedent " man ". 

19. The loeather is very v)arm^ which is unfavorable to 

health. 

This Sentence is Compound, Close, Complicate, Direct. 
The Antecedent of " which " is " the weather is very warm ". 

20. Lead is heavvr than Iron. 

This Sentence is Compound, Close, Simple, Direct. 
The first Member is "Lead is heavier (in the compari- 
son) ". 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE, 171 

The second Member is " (in) than iron (is heavy) ". 

The Connective is the Relative Pronoun "than'', whose 
Antecedent is the word " comparison " (understood) in the 
first Member. 

21. He refused ( ) what was offered. 

In this Sentence the word " what " is (1.) a Relative Pro- 
noun, relating to the word " thing " understood, and (3.) is 
used as the Subject of" offered ". 

22. Wait here until I see what means can he adopted. 
This Sentence is Compound, Close, Simple, Direct. 
The first Member is " Wait here until (the time) ". 

The second Member is " (in which) I (shall) see (those 
means) what means can be adopted ". 

This second Member is itself a Compound, Close, Simple, 
Direct Sentence, in which the Connective is the Relative 
Pronominal Adjective " what ", relating to its antecedent 
" (means) ". 

23. There needed a new dispensation of religion. 

In this Sentence the word "There" is (1.) a Pronoun, 
Indefinite (meaning the people, the world, society, &c.), 
and (3.) is used as the Subject of "needed ". 

24. There needs little skill for doing such work. 

In this Sentence the Pronoun " There "= any one, any 
person, &c. 

25. There is no better evidence of a 'inaii's being a coward 
than his coristant boasting of his courage. 

This Sentence is Compound, Close, Simple, Direct. 

The first Member is " There is no better evidence of a 
man's being a coward. 

The second Member is" (in) than his constant boasting of 
his courage (is good evidence). " 

The Subject of the first Member is the Indefinite Pronoun 
"there." 

The first Member is a Complicate Sentence, of which the 
Elementary Sentence is " a man's being a coward '', which is 
a modified form of "a man is a coward," and is used as a 
Modifier of the word " thing" understood. 



172 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

The Connective is the Relative " than ", which =" that" 
and relates to the word " comparison " understood. 

26. His answer was "J!' am ready for any emergency y 
This Sentence is Complicate, Simple, Co-Predicative, 

Primary. 

The Elementary Sentence " I am ready for any emer- 
gency" is Simple, Copulative, Neuter, Affirmative, Positive, 
Indicative. 

27. They saw that ( ) he was U7iw tiling. 

This Sentence is Complicate, Simple, Co-Predicative 
Secondary. 

The Elementary Sentence " he was unwilling " is used as 
a Modifier of the word " thing " understood after " that ". 

28. Thomas and William refused to go. 

This Sentence is Complicate, Complex, Subjective, Co- 
Predicative, Secondary. 

The Elementary Sentence " (themselves) to go " is the 
Obj. of ''refused." 

This Elementary Sentence is Simple, Verbal, Affirmative, 
Positive, Infinitive. 

29. To say that he had seen the Emperor was his ambi- 
tion. 

This Sentence is Complicate, Simple, Co-Subjective, 
Primary. 

The Elementary Sentence " (himself) to say that he had 
seen the Emperor " is itself Complicate, Simple, Co-Predi- 
cative, Secondary, Verbal, Affirmative, Positive, Infinitive. 

30. His refusing to apologize vms proof that an insult was 
intended. 

This Sentence is Complicate, Simple, Co-Mixed, Sec- 
ondary, Copulative, Neuter, Affirmative, Positive, Indica- 
tive. 

The Elementary Sentence in the Subject is " (himself) to 
apologize ", and is used as the Object of" refusing". 

The Elementary Sentence in the Predicate is " an insult 
was intended", and is used as a Modifier of the word 
" (thing) " understood. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 173 

81. I shall have finished the letter by eight o'clock. 
The Phrase "by eight o'clock "=by the time which is 
called eight hours of the clock. 

32. W^ho will show ( ) ^is any good ( )? 

This Sentence is Simple, Verbal, Affirmative, Interroga- 
tive, Indefinite, Direct, Indicative. 

The word " to " is understood before '' us " ; and " thing " 
after "good ". 

33. The sun having risen^ we pursued our journey. 

In this Sentence the Compound Participle " having risen " 
is substituted for the Compound Past Tense " had risen ", 
to show the omission of the Correlatives " when " and 
"then" 

34. Use all the care which it is possible for you to exei^cise. 
This Sentence is Compound, Close, Simple, Direct. 

The first Member " Use all the care " is Simple, Verbal, 
Affirmative, Positive, Imperative. 

The second Member, " which it is possible for you to ex- 
ercise ", is Complicate, Simple, Co-Subjective, Primary. 

The Elementary Sentence "(yourself) to exercise which " 
is Simple, Verbal, Affirmative, Positive, Infinitive ; and it 
is used as a Modifier of the Indefinite Pronoun " it ", which 
is the Subject of " possible ". 

35. They taught him grammar. 

This is a Double Objective Sentence, and="They taught 
(to) him grammar ", or " They taught him (in) grammar ". 

36. They called him John. 

This Sentence =" They called (to) him John", or "They 
called him (by the name) John." 

37. I was taught grammar. 

In this Sentence " grammar " is the Object of ^* in " under- 
stood. 

38. TFe hear much now a days about progress. 

In this Sentence the word " days " is the Object of the 
Preposition " a ", which shows the relation between "now " 
and "days". The "a" = of 

*' Now " is a Noun, the Object of " in " understood. The 



174 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC ORAMMAR 

Phrase is often consolidated (now-a-days, or nowadays) and 
forms an Adverb. 

39. Three times three is m9ie. 

This Sentence is an abbreviation of the following : 
The number formed by taking ^^ three ^^ three times is 
nine. 

It should be written three-times-three is nine. The con- 
solidated phrase constitutes a Compound Noun. 

40. To speak plainly^ the man was drunk. 

This Sentence is a Contracted form of the following : 
" Because I wish to speak plainly, therefore I say the man 
was drunk ". 

41. The more we have^ the more we desire. 

This Sentence is Compound, Compact, Single, Absolute. 

The Correlatives are " The " and '^ the " (=L. quantuand 
tantu) . 

The word " the ", in this example, is not the Article, but 
is derived from the old Instrumental Case of "that"; and 
the Sentence = By how much we have more, by so much 
we desire more. 

42. William became the leader of a party. 

The word " become " is the Copula " be ", in combination 
with the Yerb " come ", and called a Copulative Verb. 

This Sentence, then, is Complicate, and is equivalent to 
the following : William came (to the condition of himself) 
to be the leader of a party. 

43. 'William came to be the leader of a party. 

This Sentence is ambiguous in signification ; and in one 
sense it is exactly equivalent to the preceding Example. 
In the other sense it = the following : William came (for 
himself ) to be the leader of a party. 

This is Complicate, Simple, Co-predicative, Secondary, 
Verbal, Affirmative, Positive, Indicative. 

The Elementary Sentence is " (himself) to be the leader 
of a party " ; and it is used as the Object of the Preposition 
(for). 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA GE. 175 

44. " He ? Did you say he ? " "■ I said he ". 

In each of these expressions the word " Ae " is the Sub- 
ject of some word understood ; and the Sentences are Com- 
plicate. 

In the Sentence " He, his and him are forms of the Per- 
sonal Pronoun ", Ae, his, and him are used to limit '' words " 
understood. 

45. ^^ It is not by starts of application that em,inence can 
he attained ". 

The structure of this sentence is readily seen when 
arranged thus : '* It is not (true) that eminence can be at- 
tained by starts of application ". 

46. " Woe worth the day ". 

In this example " worth " is the Copula ; and the sentence 
=" Woe be to the day". 

47. " This hook is worth a dollar " This=** This book is 
(a book of the) worth (of) a dollar". 

48. " It took Rome three hundred years to die ". 

In this sentence " Rome " is used as a Modifier of the 
Subject " It ". 

49. " We do you to wit of the grace of God ". 2nd Cor. 
8:1. 

In this sentence " do ^''=^make or cause ; and " to wit " = 
to know. 

50. " They elected him Governor ". 

This = They elected him (for himself to be) governor. 

51. ^^ lie was chosen king ''\ This=He was chosen (for 
himself to be) king. 

52. " Se opened his hand wide " This = He opened his 
hand (for it to be) wide. 

53. " The glasses were colored blue ". This=::The glasses 
were colored (for them to be) blue. 

54. '^ Soft sighed the flute ''\ This=:y6fo/% sighed the 
flute. 



176 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

65. ^^ Sis provisions were grown short ''\ This = His pro- 
visions were grown (to themselves to be) short. 

56. " The vowel is pronounced short ". 

This = The vowel is (so) pronounced (as itself to be) short. 

57. ^^ Horses are sold extre^nely dear^\ This = Horses 
are sold (at an) extremely dear (price.) 

58. " JSat mercy first and last shall brightest shine ". 
This=But mercy first and last shall (in the) brightest 

(manner) shine. 

59. " They all ran away, to a man ". 

This=They all ran away; (and this statement is exact) 
to a man. 

60. " The wall is three feet high ". This=The wall is 
high (by) three feet. 

61. " His son is eight years old ". This = His son is old 
(by) eight years. 

62. " The load weighs a ton^\ This = The load weighs 
(itself by) a ton.=The load is weighed (i. e. balanced) by a 
ton. 

63. " The trees measures ninety feet ".=:The tree measures 
(itself by) ninety feet. = The tree is measured (i. e. equalled 
in length) by ninety feet. 

Wote. The idiom in the last two examples is similar to 
the French idiom in which Reflexive Verbs are used as a 
substitute for a Passive Voice, e. g. " Corn sells at a good 
price " is rendered in French Xe ble se ve7id d bo7i prlx ; 
i. e., literally, " The corn sells itself 2X a good price." 

64. " Methbiks they were right ". 
*'Methinks"=it thinks to me=it seems to me. 

65. " IVilliam left JSostoJi, lohere he vms doing to ell " 
This Sentence is Compound, Close, Simple, Direct. 

The Connective is the Relative " where ", which relates 
to "Boston", and is used to modify "doing". It is the 
old Locative Case of" which ". (See Note 26.) 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA GE. 1 7 7 

66. JECe has gone to Boston^ whence he will proceed to Sal m. 

This Sentence is Compound, Close, Simple, Direct. The 
Connective is the Relative Pronoun ' vdience ", which relates 
to Boston, and limits " will proceed ". It is the old Geni- 
tive Case of "which". 

• 67. He came from Boston^ whither he will soon return. 

This sentence is Compound, Close, Simple, Direct. The 
Connective is the Relative Pronoun " whither ", which 
relates to " Boston ", and limits " will return ". It is the 
old Adlative Case of '' which ". (See Note 26.) 

68. Please tell me the reason lohy he failed. 

In this sentence the word " why " is a Relative Pronoun, 
— the old Instrumental Case of" which ". 

69. That horse of yours, &c. This="That horse of 
yourself, &c." 

70. " I stood upon the hills, where heaven's wide arch 
Was glorious with the sun's returning march ; 
And woods were brightened ; and soft gales 
Went forth to kiss the sun-clad vales." 

This Sentence is Compound, Loose, Normal, of three 
Members. 

The first Member, including the first two lines, is Com- 
pound, Compact, Single, Absolute, — the Correlatives being 
"there" (understood) and " where." Each Member of this 
Compact Sentence is Simple. 

The second Member of the original Sentence, "■ woods 
were brightened ", is a Simple Sentence, and is connected to 
the first Member by the Conjunction " and ''. 

The third Member, " soft gales went forth to kiss the sun- 
clad vales ", is Complicate, Simple, Co-Predicative, Sec- 
ondary, Verbal, Affirmative, Positive, Indicative, and is con- 
nected to the second Member by the Conjunction " and ". 

The Elementary Sentence in this Member, " (themselves) 
to kiss the sun-clad vales ", is Simple, Verbal, Affirmative 
JPositive, Infinitive, and is used as the Object of the Prepo- 
sition (for). 



178 A COMPLETE 8CIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 

71. He broke the letter opeii.^TLe, broke open the letter. 
=:He broke the letter (to it to be) open, i. e., He broke 
the letter ; (and the " end " of the breaking was it to be) 
open. 

72. He washed his hands dea?i.=lle washed his hands 
(to them to be) clean. 

73. I had rather that he shoidd go than that I should go. 
In this sentence ''had " is a relic of the old Subjunctive 

Mood, and=" would have ". So in all similar cases where 
^' had " is used before "rather ", " better ", &c. 

74. They had better return.=Thej would have (them- 
selves) better (in themselves to) return. 

75. '' There was a sound of revelry by night ; 
And Belgium's Capital had gathered then 
Her beauty and her chivalry ; and bright 

The lamps shone o'er fair women and brave men ; — 

A thousand hearts beat happily ; and when 

Music arose with its voluptuous swell, 

Soft eyes looked love to eyes which spake again ; 

And all went merry as a marriage bell ; 

But hush ! hark ! a deep sound strikes like a rising 

knell ! " 

This Sentence is Compound, Loose, Normal, of Seven 
Members, which are separated by the Semicolons. 

The first Member, of which the word '' There " is the Sub- 
ject, is Simple. 

The second Member is Simple, and is connected to the 
first by " and ". 

The third Member is Simple, and is connected to the sec- 
ond by " and ". 

The fourth Member is Simple, and is connected to the 
third by " and " (understood). 

The fifth Member is Compound, Compact, Single, Abso- 
lute, having " when " and '• (then) " for its Correlatives, and 
connected to the fourth by " and ". 

The second Member of this Compact Sentence is Com- 
pound, Close, Simple, Direct. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA GE. 179 

The sixth Member is Compound, Compact, Single, Abso- 
lute, having " (as) " and " as " for its Correlatives, and is 
connected to the fifth by " and ". 

The seventh Member is Compound, Compact, Single, Ab- 
solute, having "(so) " and '^as" (which should have been 
used' instead of '' like ") for its Correlatives, and is connected 
to the sixth by the Conjunction " But ". 

" Hush " and " hark " are used as Exclamations. 



CHAPTER II.-SYNTHESIS. 

Synthesis is that part of Syntax pertaining to the con- 
struction of Sentences. 

The Divisions of Synthesis are Agreement, Gov- 
ernment, Arrangement, the Uses of Words and Forms, — 
and Idioms. 

SECTION I.-AGREEMENT. 

Agreement is the correspondence of words of different 
classes in respect to forms. 
The Classes of Agreements are three, viz. : 

1. Those of the Pronoun with the Noun it represents; 

2. Those of the Adjective with the Noun it limits ; and 

3. Those of the Yerb or Copula with the Subject of the 
Sentence. 

Corresponding Forms are those which, in different 
Classes, have the same names. 

EXAMPLES. 

The word '* he " is the 3d Person of the Singular Number of a Pro- 
noun : and " goes " is the 3d Person of the Singular Number of a Verb. 
" He " and " goes ", therefore, are Corresponding Forms. 

Equivalence, Two or more Singular Forms of Nouns or Pronouns, 
connected by " and " are, in respect to Agreement, equivalent to a Plu- 
ral Form, unless they denote the same thing. 

Inapossibility. Agreement is impossible without Corresponding 
Forms. 

GENERAL RULE FOR AGREEMENT. 

Use Corresponding Forms, if possible, in uniting words 
of different classes. 



180 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

CLASS I-AGREEMENTS OF PRONOUNS. 

Principle. Pronouns should agree with their Nouns in 
Gender and Number. 

SPECIAL RULES. 

1. Use a Masculine Form to represent a Masculine Noun, 
or a Masculine Form of a Noun, — a Feminine Form to 
represent a Feminine Noun, or a Feminine Form of a Noun, 
and a Neuter Form to represent a Neuter Noun. 

2. Use a Masculine Form to represent a Doubtful Noun, 
■when the sex is unknown ; but when the sex is known, use 
the appropriate Form. 

3. Use a Singular Form to represent a Singular Form of 
a Noun, and a Plural Form to represent a Plural Form of a 
Noun. 

4. Use a Singular Form to represent a Noun which is 
Plural in form, but singular in sense. 

5. Use a Singular or Plural Form, according to the sense, 
to represent an Ambiguous Noun. 

6. Use a Singular Form to represent a Singular Collective 
Noun ; but use a Plural Form, when necessary, to represent 
some such Plural word as " individuals ", " members ", &c., 
understood before the Collective Noun. 

7. Use a Form of the 1st Person to represent any Com- 
pound Term including a 1st Person. 

8. Use a Form of the 2nd Person to represent any Com- 
pound Term including a 2nd Person but not a 1st Person. 

9. Use a Form of the 3d Person to represent any Com- 
pound Term not including a 1st Person or a 2nd Person. 

EXERCISES. (Correct the errors, and fill the blanks.) 

1. The gentleman had her watch stolen yesterday. 

2. When the Authoress heard that statement, he was surprised. 

3. This ink does not hold his color well. 

4. A certain teacher proposed a question to its class. 

5. John slipped on the ice, and sprained their ankle. 

6. Those men carried his heads very high. 

7. Those young men will be despised unless change 

course. 



I 



I 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA GE. 181 

8. When the man was last seen, was standing with hat 

in hand. 

9. The lady said that would use influence as far as 

could. 

10. The child has burnt fingers upon the hot stove. 

11. That statue appears as if would soon fall from 

pedestal. 

12. The Society refused assent to this arrangement. 

13. The (members of the) Society expressed approbation by 

cheering. 

14. A good teacher is usually beloved by the most of pujjils. 

15. The enraged Elephant broke chain, and rushed upon 

keeper. 

16. The frightened sheep escaped from keeper, and fled into 

the Avoods. 

17. The swift footed deer left pursuers far behind. 

18. The lady said that — hated politics, and thought 

very wearisome. 

19. James and John lost his way in the woods. 

20. Neither Henry nor William lost their way in the same woods. 

21. Susan and Mary forgot books, and went back for . 



22. You and I were not perfect in your recitations this morning. • 

23. You and I and James ought to have been in seats before 

now. 

24. You and he are deserving of praise for diligence. 

25. He and John have written compositions for next week. 

26. That eminent philosopher and statesman sent in resigna- 
tion. 

CLASS II.-AGREEMENTS OF ADJECTIVES. 
Principle. Adjectives should agree with their N"ouns 
or Pronouns in Number. 

RULE. 

Use a Singular Adjective or a Singular Form of an Adjec- 
tive to limit a Singular Form of a Noun or Pronoun, and a 
Plural Adjective or a Plural Form of an Adjective to limit 
a Plural Form. 

EXERCISES. (Correct the errors, and fill the blanks.) 

1. The Surveyor's Chain is four rod long. 

2. Some people object to these kind of exercises. 

3. I think that the merchant asks too much for these molasses. . 

4. Please tell me the price of ■ • shears. 

5. What do you think of the credibility of news '? 



182 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

6. Tell the servant to be careful in removing — ashes. 

7. I never like to converse with sort of persons. 

8. The Doctor says that victuals not suitable for the 

patient. 

9. The surveyor uses a four-rod chain. 

10. The carpenter uses a ten-foot pole and a twelve-inch rule, 

CLASS III.-AGEEEMENTS OF THE COPULA AND VERB. 
Principle. The Copula or Verb should agree with its 
Subject in Number and Person. 

RULES. 

1. Use a Singular Form with a Singular Subject, and a 
Plural Form with a Plural Subject. 

2. Where Plural Forms are lacking, use the Tense Stems 
instead of them. 

3. When the Subject is a Personal Pronoun, use a Form 
of the 1st Person with a Subject of the first Person, — a 
Form of the 2nd Person with a Subject of the 2nd Person, 
— and a Form of the 3d Person with a Subject of the 3d 
Person. 

4. Where Personal Forms are lacking, use Tense Stems 
instead of them. 

5. When the Subject is a Singular Noun or a Sentence, 
use a form of the 3d Person Singular with it. 

6. When the Subject is a Relative Pronoun, make the 
Copula or Verb agree, if possible, with the Antecedent of 
the Relative. 

EXERCISES. (Correct the errors and fill the blanks.) 

1. Many great and good men is still living. 

2. We am going to the Lecture this evening. 

3. The man says that he are going to Philadelphia. 

4. Willie said that he were going to have a new pair of skates. 

5. I does not believe that I is not as good as he am. 

6. John write compositions better than James do. 

7. Thou is not well prepared for recitation. 

8. I thinks that thou have need of more diligence. 

9. Thou said that thou would return very early. 

10. Thou will be fortunate if thou escape without damage. 

11. They has not returned, and is not expected to return. 

12. Persons who is wise will take care of their health. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 183 

13. The signers of the Declaration of Independence all dead. 

14. The man who hurt by the accident recovered. 

15. Those men no need to apologize, when their work 

finished. 

16. If thou been faithful to thy trust, thou be re- 
warded. 

17. Those books - written by authors who wise and good. 

18. I not sure that he a knave ; but I think he . 

19. If they ■ honest, they return those articles to their 

owners, 

20. The times changed since these old men were young. 

21. Joseph and Thomas is gone to the Fair. 

22. You and I and George was on the same train to-day. 

23. If I was in your place, I would not go there. 

24 Was he as wise as he thinks he be, he would not do such things. 

SECTION n.-GOVERNMENT. 

Government is the control of one word over another 
in respect to Case. 

The Species of Government are three ; that of the 
Subject, that of the Predicate, and that of the Object. 

1. A Subject is governed by its Copula or Yerb. 

2. A Predicate is governed by its Copula. 

3. An Object is governed by its Verb or Preposition. 

SPECIES I.-GOVERNMENT OF THE SUBJECT. 

RULES. 

1. When the Subject of any Tense Form is to be a Pro- 
noun, use its Nominative Case. 

2. When the Subject of an Infinitive is to be a Pronoun, 
use its Objective Case. 

SPECIES II.-GOVERNMENT OF THE PREDICATE, 

RULE. 

When a Predicate is to be a Pronoun, use the Nomina- 
tive Case with a Tense Form, and the Objective Case with 
an Infinitive. 

SPECIES III-GOVERNMENT OF THE OBJECT. 

RULE. 

When the Object of a Yerb or Preposition is to be a Pro- 
noun, use its Objective Case. 



184 A COMPLETE 8CIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 

EXERCISES. (Correct errors and fill blanks.) 

1. Him and me went to the city on tlie 4tli of July. 

2. Tliera said them wished we to come and assist they. 

3. The persons who them wished to be there were not there. 

4. The man saw they while them were stealing the horse. 

5. Her said that the book belonged to they. 

6. The teacher told the boy that would give a book. 

7. When the prisoners heard the evidence against ■ , de- 
spaired. ■ 

8. Thomas told his friends that he wished to assist . 

SECTION III-ARRANGEMENT. 

1. The Normal Arrangement of a Simple Yerbal 
Sentence, with Primitive Elements, is (1.) The Subject ; and 
(2.) The Predicate. 

2. A Copulative Sentence has (1.) The Subject ; (2.) 
The Copula ; and (3.) The Predicate. 

3. Adjectives modifying a Noun are placed before it. 

4. Adverbs modifying a Copula or Verb are placed 
after it ; but those modifiying an Adjective or Adverb are 
placed before it. 

5. The Object of a Verb or Preposition is placed 
after it. 

6. A Prepositional Phrase is placed after the word 
it limits. 

7. Separate Adjectives. Several Adjectives sepa- 
rately modifying a Noun are placed before it in any order, 
and connected by Conjunctions expressed or understood. 

8. Consecutive Adjectives. Of several Adjectives 
consecutively modifying a Noun, the 1st is placed immedi- 
ately before the Noun, the 2nd before the 1st, and the 3d 
before the 2nd, <fcc., with no Conjunctions or Points between 
them. 

9. An Article precedes its Noun ; and if other Adjec- 
tives are used with it, the Article precedes the whole. 

10. Adverbs of the same Group. Several Adverbs 
of the same Group, limiting a Verb, are placed after it, and 
connected by Conjunctions, expressed or understood. 

11. Adverbs of Different Groups. When Adverbs 



'iii 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 185 

of different Groups modify the same Yerb, some are placed 
before it and some after it, — those of the same Group being 
placed together. 

12. Modal Adverbs modifying a Yerb are placed be- 
fore it. 

13. Variation. This Order is frequently and exten- 
sively varied for special purposes. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Time flies. 2. Time is precious. 3. He has active assistants. 

4. He writes rapidly. They are not present. She is very active. A 
lazy student will most certainly fail to succeed. 

5. We met them in the field of wheat by the side of the river. 

6. He is a man of great learning. They write in a careless manner. 

7. He had an old, weather-beaten, and dilapidated house. 

8. The poor old man owned a miserable little brown house. 

9. The house stands near a large spreading oak-tree. 

10. That young man writes slowly, carefully, and accurately. 

11. They usually prepare their lessons carefully and thoroughly. 

12. The young men certainly speak with much ease and propriety, 

RULES OF ARRANGEMENT. 

1. Place all Modifiers so that it shall be evident what 
words they are intended to limit. 

2. Arrange all parts of a Sentence so as to make the 
meaning as clear as possible. 

3. Place emphatic words, when practicable, near the be- 
ginning or the end of a Sentence. 

4. Place Relative Pronouns as near as possible to their 
antecedents. 

5. Avoid besfinnins: a Sentence with " and^* or " hut '\ 

6. Place the most emphatic Modifier of a Yerb immedi- 
atelv after it. 

7. Avoid closing a Sentence with a Preposition, unless its 
Object be the Relative " that ", or " ichat ". 

8. Place all Pronouns so that it shall be evident what 
words they represent. 

9. Place the Article before its iSToun. 

10. Place the Indefinite Article after " such ", *' many ", 



186 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

*' what ", and " both " ; and after words limited by " as ", 
" so ", ^' how ", and " too ". 

11. Avoid the use of Parentheses, redundant words, and 
Exclamations. 

12. Avoid a succession of words or syllables of like sound. 

13. In Interrogative Sentences, unless the Subject is an 
Interrogative Pronoun, place the Subject after the Verb or 
Copula ; or, if Auxiliaries are used, place the Subject after 
the first Auxiliary. Also observe the same rule in Hypo- 
thetical Sentences, when "if" is omitted; and likewise in 
Imperative Sentences. 

14. In referring to several individuals, -plsLceJirst the word 
designating the person addressed, and let that denoting the 
speaker stand last ; — but if anything unfavorable is men- 
tioned, reverse the order. 

15. Let no word come between the " to " of an Infinitive 
and the other parts of the form. 

EXERCISES. (Correct the errors.) 

1. These lines were written by one who has for many years lain in 
his grave for his own amusement. 

Wanted. A boy to open Oysters about fifteen years old. 
He is not prepared thoroughly to weigh the arguments. 
They are not fitted properly to enter upon this work. 

2. He yet would not, although he had the opportunity of doing so, 
take advantage of their want of preparation. 

3. By him the discovery was made ; and the Jionor should be ascribed 
to him. 

I tell you again, gentlemen, that justice ought to be our first 
object. 

4. The man has returned for his own benefit who left his country for 
his country's good. 

5. And, now, gentlemen, it is time for us to attend to other matters. 
But none are so blind as those who do not wish to see. 

6. This poet has the ability to write rapidly and beautifully such 
things. 

He takes this course for the benefit of his friends, for the welfare 
of his neighbors, and for his own interest. 

7. He is the most singular man whom I have ever been acquainted 
with. 

This result is that which I have long been laboring for. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA GE. 187 

8. I went to the stable for a horse with Tom Flynn ; and I told the 
man to put the saddle on him. 

The man told the boys to saddle the donkey ; and so they saddled 
him. 

John said that his brother had returned, and that he had lost his 
watch. 

9. I saw stars the, beautiful and numberless as sands the on a 
beach, 

10. I never before saw a such multitude of people. 

It is surprising how a great part of life is made up of trifles. 

11. Walter (for that was the name of the boy whom I met) requested 
me to go with him. 

The way and manner of doing it is certainly, as it seems to me, 
very evident and plain and easy to be understood and comprehended. 

They returned back again to the same city from whence they came 
forth. 

How beautiful the grass and trees and flowers look in the Spring f 
and how sweetly the birds sing ! and how joyful every thing seems ! 

12. This miserable old man chillily and lonelily proceeded to his mis- 
erable home. 

" O'er the sea see the flamingo flaming go, 
The lark hie high, the swallow follow low. 
The small bees busy at their threshold old, 
And lambs lamenting the three-fold fold." 

13. A man very much under the influence of liquor, with a pair of 
shad, was making his way under difficulties to the depot on Saturday. 

She added to unusual learning much talent as a painter, and 
according to her admiring cotemporaries, as a poetical writer. 

She wrote, among other poems, a spirited defense of her sex, in 
answer to Pope's Characters of Women, which Duncomb praises in his 
Feminead. 

Rich or poor you have always been to me a true friend. 

The English hate frogs ; but the French love frogs and hate the 
English, and cut ofi" their hind legs, and consider them a great delicacy. 

John Smith, his wife, baby, and dog came up to town to see the 
fair ; and passing through the streets he amused himself by barking at 
every unprotected female he met. 

14. James and I and you were present at the wedding. 
I and you and Thomas were very fortunate. 

You and Henry and I committed a great error. 

15. It is not advisable for us to now go there. 

For him to in that manner have gone there is strange. 



188 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

SECTION IV.-XJSES OF WORDS AND FORMS. 
NOUNS. 
A Noun Stem is used as a Subject, Predicate, Modifier 
or Exclamation. 

A Possessive Case of a Noun is always used as a 
Modifier. 

Modifying" Noun. A Noun is used as a Modifier in 
several ways : 

1. It is appended to another Noun meaning the same 
thing, for the purpose of identifying or explaining it. (Ap- 
position.) 

2. It is placed, like an Adjective, before a Noun meaning 
a difi'erent thing. In this use it becomes an Adjective sub- 
stantially (except in the Possessive Form), and is frequently 
in fact a contraction of an Adjective, as " gold " for " gold- 
en " ; " wood " for " wooden " ; <fcc. 

3. It is used as the Object of a Verb. In this use 
it modifies the Verb by answering the question ''What ? " , 
— just as other Modifiers answer the questions " When ? ", 
" Where ? ", *' Whence ? ", " How ? ' ','' Why ? ", &c. 

4. It is used as the Object of a Preposition. Iq 
this use it also answers the question " What ? ", and modi* 
fies the Preposition, just as in the first use it modifies a Noun 
in Apposition ; for the Preposition and its Object mean the 
same thing. The apparent exception to this principle in 
the case of the Adjective and Phrase prepositions is the re- 
sult of Contraction. On restoring the original forms, the 
principle holds good. 

5. In the Possessive Form it modifies a Noun de- 
noting a different thing, and indicates origin, possession, 
authorship, adaptation, &g. 

The Possessive Case of a Noun is usually equivalent 
to the Stem placed after the word " of ", as John's houses 
The house of John. 

A Noun followed by Modifiers is often treated as 
a Compound Noun ; and its Possessive Case is formed by 
adding the Possessive termination to the last word, as " For 



OF THE ENGLI8H LANG UAGE. 189 

my servant David's sake "; ''The President of tlie Literary- 
Society's decision" ; &c., but such expressions are awkward 
and should be avoided. 

Joint Liimitation. Of two or more Nouns jointly 
limiting the same word, only the last takes the Possessive 
form ; but if they separately limit the word, then each takes 
that Form. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Time is short. I wish the money to be sent. He is a farmer. 
Richard wishes to be a painter. He wears a cloth coat and a gold 

chain. 

They eat the bread of industry. That iron fence belongs to 
Henry. 

Milton, the poet, and Bacon, the philosopher, were very dis- 
tinguished men. 

Friends and Countrymen, I congratulate you. James, come here. 

2. John's hat. Children's shoes. The tree's fruit. Webster's Dic- 
tionary. 

The animal's tracks. The horse's back. The ship's sails. The 
man's debts. 

The rope's end. The citizen's duty. The laborer's work. The 
parent's obligation. The child's disobedience. Ivison, Blakeman, 
and Taylor's Publications. Webster's, Worcester's, and Smart's Dic- 
tionaries. 

PRONOUNS. 

Use. A Pronoun represents a Noun, a Phrase, or a 
Sentence. 

Origin. Originally all Pronouns were Definitive Ad- 
jectives. 

Personal Pronoun. The Forms of the Personal Pro- 
noun are all from the same original, and are closely related 
to the Pronominal Adjectives. 

A Nominative Case is used as a Subject, Predicate, 
or Exclamation. 

A Possessive Case is used as a Modifier. 

An Objective Case is used as an Object, as a Subject of 
an Infinitive, or as an Exclamation. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. He writes. It is he. It is I. Ye villains ! Thou miscreant ! 
Fortunate he ! Happy they ! A he-goat. A she-wolf. 



190 A COMPLETE 8GIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 

2. His book. Their time. His conduct. Your deficiencies. 
Thy likeness. Thine image. His absence. My presence. 

3. I saw him. The house belongs to them. There is necessity for 
him to go. wretched we ! Ah miserable me ! 

4. The man has sold his house. He built a large fine house, and 
sold it. He is a poor scholar ; and he knows it. 

She is very quick tempered, which is often a cause of regret to 
her. 

5. That beautiful farm, which farm I once owned, is now for sale. 
Wait here until I see what course it is best for us to take. 
That thing which ( ) most disturbs him is the fear of detection. 

SPECIAL FORMS. 
The Forms of the 2ncL Person, Singular, are now 

used only in the solemn, impassioned, or poetic style, except 
among the Friends, or Quakers, and in some provincial dis- 
tricts. 

fil^^ These forms are not obsolete nor obsolescent, but 
are retained for the highest purposes, and should be thor- 
oughly familiar. 

The Form " You " is the common drudge among Pro- 
nouns, being compelled, in addition to its own, to do the 
work of ^' Ye", '' Thou ", and '' Thee ". 

The Form ^^It" is often used as an Indefinite (or In- 
ceptive) Pronoun at the beginning of a Sentence ; and a 
Predicate of any Gender, Number, or Person, may be joined 
to it by the Copula. When used in this way it sometimes 
represents an Elementary Sentence which is afterwards in- 
troduced as a Modifier of it ; but more frequently the phrase 
" that (thing) " is first introduced as a Modifier of the In- 
ceptive " it ", and then the Elementary Sentence as a Modi- 
fier of ''thing". Sometimes "it" is used indefinitely as 
the Object of a Verb ; but this use is not common, and 
ought to become obsolete. 

The Form "" There " is frequently used inceptively in 
the same manner as " it ". 

Omitted Antecedents. The Antecedents of the Rel- 
atives what^ whatever, whichsoeuer, whosoever, &c., are usu- 
ally omitted. 

Use of the Relatives, " Who " is used to represent 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 191 

persons; *' which" and " what " to represent things; and 
'' that " to represent either persons or things. 

The Forms Thou and You are not applicable to the 
same person in the same connection. IsTeglect of this prin- 
ciple is a great blemish in some of the Poets. 

A Pronoun used as a Predicate takes the same form 
as if it were a Subject in the same Sentence. 

The Possessive Pronouns. Each of these forms is 
equivalent to a Noun limited by a Possessive Case of a Per- 
sonal Pronoun. 

EKROES. 

** They " is often used improperly for " one " or "he ", as " If any 
one does not like this book, they are (he is) not obliged to read it." 

** Them " is sometimes improperly used for " those ", as " Bring me 
tJiem (those) books." 

** As " is sometimes wrongly used for " who ", as " The men as (who) 
do such things ought to be punished." 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Thou art gone to the grave ; but we will not deplore thee. 

2. Gentlemen, you all are greatly mistaken in your opinions. 

3. I thank you, sir, for your kindness, and will remember the obliga- 
tion. - 

4. It is I. It is thou. It is he. It is we. It is you. It is they. 

It is this man. It is that woman. It is those persons who are do- 
ing this. 

6. It is certain that he has not returned yet. 
It is not certain that he will ever return again. 

6. Haste ye, nymphs, and trip it as ye go. 

They lorded it over the people with absolute sway. 

7. There are ( ) reasons for taking such a course. 

There were ( ) multitudes ( ) ready to confirm his statements. 

8. When he saw ( ) what would result from his act ( ) he desisted. 
The reward is ready for ( ) whoever shall deserve to receive it. 
To whomsoever the property belongs ( ) it shall soon be restored. 

9. The men who best deserve preferment do not always obtain it. 
The cattle which he bought are certainly very valuable. 

The men that lived here, and the habitations that they built, have 
disappeared. 

10. It is he who did it ; and I can easily prove it to be him. 

11. That book is hers (her book). Yours (your letter) of the 3d is 
received. 



192 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR. 

Our friends are better than theirs (their friends). 

That book of hers (herself ) cannot be found. 

That nose of bis (his self= himself ) is very crooked. 

EXERCISES. (Correct the errors.) 

1. It is me. It is him. It washer which did it. The man does not 
wish them horses to be disturbed. If any one fails to learn their lesson 
they will suffer great loss. If I knew who it was which did this, I 
would make them pay for their mischief. It was not them as did it. 

2. Thou art younger than your looks imply. You have many advan- 
tages ; but thou dost not seem to know it. The horse who ran away 
yesterday was badly hurt. I knew it to be he by his voice. They do 
not think it is him. Whom do they think it is *? Who does he believe 
it to be '? 

ADJECTIVES. 

Uses. Adjectives are used to limit Nouns or Pronouos, 
and to form Predicates in Copulative Sentences. 

Position. The Position of an Adjective is usually be- 
fore a Noun, or after a Pronoun. 

Order. Several Descriptive Adjectives separately limit- 
ing a Noun are placed before it in any order, and connected 
by Conjunctions, expressed or understood, as " A great, wise 
and virtuous man." Definitive Adjectives used with other 
Adjectives are placed before them. 

Several Adjectives consecutively limiting a Noun are 
placed in consecutive order before it, the 1st. next the Noun, 
the 2nd before the 1st, &c., with no Conjunctions or points 
between them, as " That beautiful white dove". In this case 
'' dove " is first limited by " white " ; then " white dove " is 
limited by " " beautiful " ; and finally ^' beautiful white 
dove " is limited by " That ". 

Definitives remain before the Noun when other Adjectives 
are placed after it. 

Qualities expressed by Adjectives are not Abso- 
lute but Relative ; and the Significance of each Adjective 
varies according to the class of the Noun it limits. 

EXAMPLE. 

The word " great " expresses a different magnitude in each of the 
phrases, A great needle, a great pencil, a groat poker, a great club, a 
great trunk, a great wagon, a great locomotive, a great house, a great 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 193 

church, a great city, a great State, a great country, a great continent, 
a great planet, a great sun, a great stellar system, &c. 

THE POSITIVE DEGREE. 

Implication. The Positive degree of a Qualitative Ad- 
jective implies the comparison of the thing mentioned with 
some Ideal Standard. 

The Ideal Standard is usually the average degree of 
the quality in the class to which the thing belongs ; and in 
that case the Positive form indicates a degree of the quality 
fully up to the standard (e. g. A tall man) ; but sometimes 
the Ideal Standard is absolute perfection ; and in that case 
the Positive form only indicates an approximation to the 
standard (e. g. Round timber and square timber). 

Consequence. Hence such words as " round ", " square ", 
"perfect", "supreme", &c., are as properly compared as 
any others. 

THE COMPARATIVE DEGREE. 

Implication. The Comparative Degree implies the 
comparison of the thing mentioned with some other thing 
or class of things having the same quality (e. g. A larger 
book). 

Significance. The Comparative Degree expresses more 
of a quality than the Positive in the pame connection ; but in 
a different application the Positive may express more of the 
quality than the Comparative or even the Superlative in a 
given application. 

iExample. The Positive " great " applied to an ox ex- 
presses more of magnitude than the Superlative "greatest" 
applied to a dog. 

Contrast. "When the Comparative Degree of a quality 
is attributed to any object, the Positive Degree is always 
attributed to the contrasted object. Ex. *'An ox is larger 
than a dog"=An ox is larger than a dog {is large). 

Sequence. The Comparative Degree of a word is fol- 
lowed by the word " than ", after which the Positive Degree 
of the same word is always either expressed or understood. 



194 A COMPLETE SGIENTIFIG GRAMMAR. 

THE SUPERLATIVE DEGREE. 

Implication. The Superlative Degree implies a Com- 
parison of the thing mentioned with two or more other 
things having the same quality. 

Significance. The Superlative Degree indicates more 
of a quality than the Comparative in the same connection. 

Contrast. When the Superlative Degree is attributed to 
any object, the Positive is always attributed to some one, 
at least, and the Comparative to some other of the contrasted 
objects. 

Sequence. The Superlative Degree is followed by the 
Preposition " of" and its Object, expressed or understood. 

Superlative of Eminence. A Superlative of Emi- 
nence is a Superlative used instead of a Positive limited by 
'< very ", as '' the greatest anxiety " = " very great anxiety ". 

TERMS OF A COMPARISON. 

The Terms of a Comparison are the two terms in- 
dicating the things which are compared. The 1st Term is 
the one first mentioned; and the 2nd Term is the one 
with which the 1st is compared. 

Liimit of Terms. When the Positive or Comparative 
Degree is used in a formal comparison, the second Term 
must never include the first ; and the first must never in- 
clude the second ; but when the Superlative Degree is 
used, the second Term must always include the first, as 
" This book is the best of the three books". 

Consequences. Hence it is incorrect to say " This book 
is better than all books", or ''This book is the best of all 
other books". 

Alho it is correct to say " the better of the two", or ''the 
best of the three " ; but it is not correct to say " the best of 
the two " or " the better of the three ". 

MISCELLANY. 
Compounds. An Adjective limiting another Adjective 
forms with it a Compound Word, and should be joined to 
it by a Hyphen, as A red-hot iron ; a dark-blue coat " ; ifcc 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG TTAGE. 195 

Double Comparatives and Superlatives should 
be avoided, as "A worser evil"; "the most straightest 
sect " ; "a lesser amount " ; <fcc. 

Superior, Inferior, and other similar words, should be 
treated as Positive and not as Comparative Forms. 

The two first, &C. The expressions " The two first " 
and " The first two " are not equivalent, and should be used 
with discrimination. " The two first " means the two which 
are first, each in its own series. " The first two '' means the 
two which precede all the others in the same series. 

Adjectives and Verbs. Adjectives do not modify 
Yerbs ; but in those Sentences where they have been thought 
to do so, the Adjectives are used by Poetic License for Ad- 
verbs, or there is an Ellipsis of some words, or the expres- 
sions are incorrect. 

EXERCISES. (Correct the errors.) 

1. The house great stands upon the hill lofty beyond the river large. 

2. Man a great, wise, and virtuous is beloved by all the good. 

3. Little red those birds make their appearance in the Summer. 

4. That old poor man has lost both fortune and friends. 

5. Man this, young, rich, and intelligent, is very much flattered. 

6. Solomon, the Jewish King, was very much wiser than all men. 

7. Solomon, the Jewish King, was very much the wisest of all other 
men. 

8. This book is the best of the two. That house is the larger of the 
three. 

9. He stood too near the red hot stove, and scorched his coat. 

10. This was the most unkindest cut of all. 

11. John and Thomas are the first two boys in their respective schools. 

12. Henry and William are the two first boys in their class. 

13. He spoke rough and fretful and unkind, and acted ungenerous. 

ARTICLES. 

Limit of Use. A Noun is never to be limited by more 
than one Article at the same time. 

Repetition. In a Series of Adjectives the repetition of 
the Article implies the repetition of its Noun. 

Omission. The Article should be omitted in the follow- 
ing Cases : 

1. Before a Proper Noun, a Compellative, or a Participle 
used as a Noun and followed by an Object. 



196 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

2. Before a Noun used in an Indefinite sense. 

3. Before a Noun limited by any one of the Pronominal 
Adjectives except other ^ one, former flattery same, niany^few, 
and several. 

Implied Article. In a Series of Nouns the Article is 
frequently understood with each Noun except the first. 

Contrasts. When two Nouns are contrasted, the Arti- 
cle should be inserted before each, or omitted before each. 

Necessity. The Article must sometimes be used, be- 
cause its omission would change the meaning from what is 
intended. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. The red, the white, and the blue flag. (Three flags.) 

2. The red, white, and blue flag. (The flag of three colors.) 

3. John Smith said " Henry, stop beating that drum." 

4. Iron is heavy. Bears are dangerous animals. Beauty is transient. 

5. This young man is studious ; that one is idle ; and the other is 
vicious. 

6. The horse, ox, camel, sheep, goat, and swine, are useful animals. 

7. Neither the sun nor the moon. Neither sun nor moon. 

"8. The German, the Irish, and the French Regiment went into camp. 
9. The German, Irish, and French Regiment went into camp. 

10. The German, the Irish, and the French Regiments went into camp. 

11. The German, Irish, and French Regiments went into camp. 

12. The Old and the New Testament. The Old and New Testaments. 

THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. 

Number of Limited Nouns. The Definite Article 
may be used to limit both Singular and Plural Nouns. 

Special Cases. This Article should be used in the fol- 
lowing cases : 

1. Before a Noun denoting a whole Class, except " man " 
and "woman". 

2. Before a Noun denoting some particular part of a 
Class. 

3. Before an Adjective used as a Noun. 

Position. When used with other Adjectives this Arti- 
cle is properly placed before them, and remains before the 
Noun even when the other Adjectives are placed after it. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 197 

"Understood" Article. Sometimes this Article is 
imderstood before a Nomi denoting a Class. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. The horse, the cow, and the mules were all stolen. 

2. The lion is a carnivorous animal. 

3. The lions are very powerful and sagacious animals. 

4. The lion which I saw was tame. 

5. The lions in the cage were quiet and docile. 

6. Man is much superior to the other animals. 

7. Woman has no less need of education than man. 

8. The rich and the poor, the high and the low, must meet death at 
last. 

9. The animal, hungry and fierce, rushed upon the prey. 

10. The beautiful fleet horse soon carried him out of danger. 

11. The Penguin is a kind of (the) bird. 

12. The Elephant is the largest of (the) Quadrupeds. 

THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 

Liimitation. The Indefinite Article can limit Sinorular 
or Ambiguous Kouns only. 

Use. The use of it is to restrict the meaning of a IsToun 
to a single thing, and to distinguish a Common IsToun from 
a Proper lN"oun. 

Old Form, &C. It was formerly written " ane " and 
means " OJie ". 

Present Forms. It is now written "a?i" before a 
Vowel, or " a " before a Consonant. 

Substitution. It is employed instead of " one " where 
less Emphasis is required. 

Fe"W, &C. When this Article precedes " few ", " hun- 
dred ",'' thousand ", ifcc, those words are not Adjectives, 
but Nouns. 

Many. When " a " is used after " many ", as " many a 
man ", <fcc., it is not the Article, but a corruption of the 
Preposition " o/" ; also when used before a Plural Xoun, 
as " ISTow a days ", <fcc. 

Position. When used with other Adjectives, this Arti- 
cle precedes them, except "such" and "what ". 



198 A COMPLETE 8GIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 

EXAMPLES. 

1. A certain man found a mischievous boy stealing apples. 

2. Deer and sheep were feeding on the grassy hill. 

3. A deer and a sheep were feeding on the grassy hill. 

4. Man, through vice, had completely ruined his health. 

6. A man, through vice, had completely ruined his health. 

6. An elderly man sat in the shade beneath an oak. 

7. Such a one desired a shade, but could not find one tree in the 
desert. 

8. A few honest patriots are better than a hundred mere hirelings. 

9. Full many a flower is born to blush unseen. 

10. This man is a mach better farmer than mechanic. 

11. This man is a much better farmer than a mechanic. 

12. That young man is a far better scholar than the teacher. 

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

The Word " the ", in the Sentence " He will the rather 
go ", is not an Article, but a Pronominal Adjective, and is 
equivalent to "by that". So also in the Sentence ''The 
more one has, the more he wants ", &c. 

'^This" and "These" are applied to things com- 
paratively near, — " that " and " those " to things more dis- 
tant. When they refer to two things just mentioned, 
"this" refers to the " latter ", and " that" to the " former" 
one. 

'*Both" means "the two", and is often used as a 
Noun. 

"Such" indicates resemblance; and "Same" denotes 
identity. 

The Distributives are all essentially Singular. 

Each Other, &c. The elliptical expression "each 
other " is used in reference to two individuals ; and " one an- 
other " in reference to onore than two. 

"Either" and "Neither" should each be used in 
reference to two things only; but " any one " and " no one " 
should each be used in reference to more than tvno thim/s. 

"Sonie"=a part or portion, and is often used as a 
Noun. 

" Other "= that which remains of a set of thinsjs. It 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 199 

should not be applied except to the last thmg of a set ; but 
the Plural, " others ", may be applied to those which re- 
main after some one, or more, of a set has been mentioned. 
" Other " is often improperly used in the sense of" second " ; 
but \\i properly has that sense in the Example " I have no 
other house than this ". 

' ^ Another ' ' may he applied to any one of a set, except 
the first or last. 

^' Any " means either " one " or " several " out of a set. 

" Many " formerly signified a group or multitude, and 
is often used as a Noun. 

'* Few " is often used as a Koun, meaning a small num- 
ber. 

** One " is a word of double origin and meaning. In one 
sense it is identical with the Article " an " and the Numeral 
" one ". In the other sense it comes from the French In- 
definite Pronoun " on ", which is itself derived from 
^^ homrne''\ meaning "man". 

''iKTone "=no one, or no ones, or no. 

'' All " is often used as a Noun, meaning the " whole ". 

'^ Several" generally means a small number, but more 
than two. 

" What ? '' and "which ? '' are different forms of 
the same word ; but " which ? " is properly used in reference 
to two things or sets of things only, while " what ? ^' is used 
in reference to any other number of things. If a person, in 
speaking, is not understood, the proper inquiry is " What ? " 
or " What did you say ? ", and not '' Which ? " 

EXAMPLES. 

1. The sooner the woi'k is begun, the sooner it will be completed. 

2. " Farewell my friends ; farewell my foes ; 

My peace with these, my love with those," 
8. I saw both men He has found both of the horses. 

4. I have seen such men ; but they were not the same whom you 
saw. 

5. Either of these is worth more than all of those. 

6. Every one of them has disgraced himself. 



200 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

7. These two men struck each other ; and those three abused one 
another. 

8. Neither he nor I is rich ; but we have each given more than anj 
one of that large company. 

9. " One day, in doubt, I cast for to compare 

Whether in beauty's glory did excel." — Spenser. 

10. One day, seeing some beggars, he gave them some money. 

11. Thomas caught the first bird ; William the second ; and Henry the 
other. 

12. Joseph caught one fish ; Julius caught another ; and Steplien the 
others. 

13. They saw many squirrels ; but they did not catch any of them. 

14. Any who think they can solve the problem may try it. 

15. A few of them succeeded in accomplishing it. 

16. Few persons are aware of their real deficiencies. 

17. If one is ignorant, he should endeavor to acquire knowledge. 

18. This i^ersoTi has many friends ; but that one has none. 

19. None are so blind as those who icill not see. 

20. His friends have much land ; but he has none. 

21. He has left all of his competitors far behind him. 

22. We saw several persons in the fields, but did not come near them. 

23. Which of those two boys is the more diligent ] 

24. Please excuse me, sir ; but what did you say % 

VERBS. 

Primarily, Verbs indicate action, as Birds fly; The 
boy runs ; &Q,. 

Secondarily, Verbs express abstract ideas having some 
analogy to actions, as The money dravrs interest ; The house 
yields a rent ; The field contains ten acres. 

Sach. Tense of a Verb may indicate a momentary, a 
continuous, or a repeated action, as He says no ; He lives in 
Boston ; He dines at noon ; — He said no ; He lived in Bos- 
ton ; He dined at noon while in the country ; &g. 

The Present Tense is used to indicate a present, past, 
or future action. 

The Past Tense is used to indicate a past or hypothet- 
ical action. 

The Future Tense is used to indicate a future or cus- 
tomary action. 

The Indefinite Tense is used to indicate present, past, 



OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 201 

or future contingent, permitted, possible, determined, or re- 
quired action. 

The Compound Present Tense is used to indicate an 
action completed within some definite period of time termin- 
ating with the present moment. This definite period is the 
past portion of some such period as the present day, week, 
month, year, century, &c., which is usually expressed, but 
sometimes understood. 

The Compound Past Tense is used to indicate an 
action completed at or before some past time expressed or 
implied. 

The Compound Future Tense is used to indicate an 
action completed at or before some future time expressed or 
implied. 

The Compound Indefinite Tense is used to indicate 
a contingent, possible, determined, or required action com- 
pleted in present, past, or future time. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. The rain falls steadily to-day. This man works at blacksmi thing. 

2. He then seizes his gun, pursues the animal, and quickly dispatches 
him. 

3. When the messenger comes, I will go with him. 

4. Thomas writes me that he will soon return. 

5. If he finishes it before Saturday, he will have done well. 

6. He remained there a year, and hunted, and fished, and studied, and 
wrote. 

7. Joseph went away last month ; and yesterday he returned. 
If they knew his character, they would avoid him. 

8. They will go to New York next week, and will engage in business 
there. 

He will sometimes work diligently ; and sometimes he will neglect 
his duties. 

9. I may be mistaken. He may go, if he wishes it. 

10. They can make some trouble. We must revise our opinions. 

11. You might improve yourselves by reading. They could accom- 
plish much. 

12. He says he will go, at all events. She would proceed in spite of 
warning. 

13. They would accomplish more, if they would work systematically. 

14. Young persons should select their companions with great care. 



202 A COMPLETE 8GIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 

15. If we should lose our way, we should certainly perish. 

16. He has written two letters to- day. They have studied well this 

terra. 

17. Prof. Agassiz has written several books, and made many discov- 
eries. 

18. John had left home before Henry arrived there. 

19. Oscar had graduated, and began to think of settling in life. 

20. The Spring will have returned before he will finish that work. 

21. That thing may have occurred several times before it was observed. 

22. These matters should have been arranged before this time. 

23. If they had not been hindered, they would have finished the work 
before the first of next December. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present Participle. The Present, Active, or Imper- 
fect, Participle has no reference to present time, but usually 
denotes a continuance of what is signified by its stem, and 
the activity of whatever is signified by its Subject, as in the 
sentence He was writing. In contracted sentences the idea 
of continuance does not appear, as in the example Finishing 
his task, he returned home. 

Use. This Participle is used as a Predicate, as a Modi- 
fier, as a Noun, and as a Contraction (Substitute for a Tense 
Form). 

Past Participle. The Past, Passive, or Perfect, Parti- 
ciple has no reference to past time, but usually denotes 
either a continued or a finished passivity of whatever is sig- 
nified by its Subject, as in the sentence They are despised; 
He was struck ; &c. 

Use. It is used as a Predicate, as a Modifier, and as an 
Element of the Compound Tenses. 

The Compound Participle is used as a Contraction. 
(See Note 20.) 

Participles of the Copula. The Present Participle 
of the Copula is used as a Contraction, or as a Noun. The 
Past Participle is used as an Element in the Compound 
Tenses of the Copula. The Compound Participle is used as 
a Contraction. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. The boy is writing. The girls were writing. 

2. The writing of compositions is a profitable exercise. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 203 

3. Writing letters is sometimes a task, and sometimes an amusement. 

4. The writing-books are very creditable to the writing class. 

5. Writing a letter hastily, he folded it and carried it to the Post 
Office. 

6. We waited at the hotel, while the horses were shod, 

7. When the horses were shod, we piirsued our joui'ney, 

8. Having shod the horses, the blacksmith brought them to the 
door. 

9. Every human being shares in the beneficence of his Creator. 

10. Being expert in mathematics, he soon solved the problem. 

11. We have been amused by his sprightly conversation. 

12. Having been deceived by him once, I shall not trust him again. 

COMPOUND TENSES. 
Auxiliary and Participle. In the Compound Tenses 
both the Auxiliary "have" and the Past Participle lose 
their ordinary signification. There is in these Tenses noth- 
ing of the idea of possession (having), or of passivity; but 
they all express completed activity. " He has written the 
letter to-day " does not mean that " he has the letter in a 
written condition to-day '' ; but that he completed the act 
of writing the letter in that part of to-day which is past. 

HYPOTHETICAL TENSES. 

The Copula has a Simple Hypothetical Tense, used in 
Hypothetical Sentences ; and its Compound Past Tense is 
also used as a Compound Hypothetical Tense. 

Significance. The Hypothetical Tense indicates present 
time ; and the Compound Hypothetical Tense indicates 
past time ; and each implies that a supposition made is 
'inerely hypothetical, as " If I were in his place, I would not 
go " ; " If I had been in his place, I would not have done 
it"; <fcc. 

The Other Tenses, in Conditional Sentences, imply 
that the case supposed is, or may be, not merely hypotheti- 
cal, but actual, as "If this is true, he ought to be punished ". 

Verbal Tenses. In Verbal Hypothetical Sentences the 
Past Tense of the Verb is used as a Hypothetical Tense ; 
and the Compound Past Tense is used as a Compound 
Hypothetical Tense. 



204 ^ COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

EXAMPLES. 

1. If he were in possession of that property, he would be rich. 

2. If he had been guilty, he would have deserved this punishment. 

3. If he had an opportunity, he would make rapid improvement. 

4. I wish that I knew where my book is. 

5. If he studied more carefully, he would improve more rapidly. 

6. Had he known the difficulties of the work, he would have shrunk 
from it. 

7. Our freedom would be useless, if it were not for the intelligence 
of the people. 

8. I wish that the gentleman were present himself. 

9. I wish that he had been present himself on that occasion. 

10. I wished then that I knew my lesson more thoroughly. 

11. He wished then that he had prepared his lesson more carefully. 

12. You will then wish that you knew more of the Sciences. 

13. They will then wish that they had studied the Sciences more dili- 
gently. 

INFINITIVES. 

TJse. Infinitives are alwa^ used as Contractions, or 
Substitutes for Tense Forms. 

The Simple Infinitive usually denotes an unfinished, 
and the Compound Infinitive a finished, action. 

The To in Infinitives is not now used as a Preposi- 
tion, but as a substitute for the former Infinitive Termina- 
tion -an or -07i. 

Former TJse. The Sign " To '^ was originally a Prepo- 
sition, meaning '^ for ", and was followed, not by the Infini- 
tive, but by a Participle (or Gerund) in the Dative Case, 
and ending with -iiiie. 

Omission. The " to " is usually omitted in Infinitives, 
following the words bid, dare, make, see, hear, feel, help, 
let, &c. 

AUXILIARIES. 

All the Auxiliaries were formerly principal Yerbs, 
the Verbs after them being Infinitives. 

Do, Have, and Will, are frequently used as principal 
Yerbs now. 

Do and Did, without Emphasis, are redundant and dis- 
agreeable, unless the principal Yerb is omitted. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 205 

The Termination of the 3d Person, Singular, in 

the Auxiliaries, is lost, except in Do and Have. 

Emphasis often modifies essentially the meaning of the 
Auxiliaries. 

The Potential Future Tens3, with Emphasis on the 
Auxiliaries, is indefinite in regard to time, and expresses de- 
termination or threatening ; but without Emphasis on the 
Auxiliaries, it is used for promising. 

Shall and Will in Conditional Sentences. In the 
conditional part of a Sentence, Shall is always Indicative ; 
and Will is always Potential. 

Do and Have, with Emphasis, are simply more inten- 
sive. 

May, with Emphasis, expresses contingency ; without it, 
permission. 

Can expresses ability or power, and is intensified by Em- 
phasis. 

Must expresses necessity, and by Emphasis is intensified 
or made threatening. 

Might and Could are the Past Tenses of May and Can^ 
and are used in the same way. 

Would is the Past Tense of Will. Sometimes it ex- 
presses contingency, sometimes disposition, and sometimes 
habit. 

Should is the Past Tense of Shall, and expresses some- 
times contingency, and sometimes obligation. 

EXEHCISES. 

1. He has much patience, does his work well, and wills to be an hon- 
est man. 

2. They speak better than he does; but he writes better than they 
do. 

•3. I shall go to the City to-morrow ; and you and John will go with 
me 

4. I will go to the City to-morrow ; and you and John shall go with 
me. 

5. They do try to learn ; and they have made good progress. 

6. I may go to Baltimore ; and, if so, you may go too, if you choose. 

7. I can give you no assistance, for I have no money ; but that man 
can help you if he is so disposed, for he is very rich. 



206 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

8. They have neglected this matter too long ; and now they must at- 
tend to it. 

9. This statement might be credited, if one could believe the former 
story. 

10. They would not go yesterday ; and now it would be useless for 
them to go. 

11. He would frequently spend whole days alone in the forest. 

12. He sliould do this, whatever others should say about it. 

13. They might have gone with him, if they would. 

DIRECT AND INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 

Indirect, or Depandent, Discourse is repeated 
Discourse following the word " that " (sometimes omitted) 
and Modifying the word ''thing " understood. 

Direct, or Independent, Discourse is original Dis- 
course not following the word " that " and Modifying the 
word " thing " understood. 

The Tenses are changed, in making discourse Indirect, 
if the word " that " is preceded by a Past or Compound 
Past Tense, or by an Indefinite or Compound Indefinite 
Tense with a Past Auxiliary. Otherwise they are not 
changed. 

The Changes of the Tenses are (1) A Present to a 
Past, (2) A Compound Present to a Compound Past, (3) A 
Past to a Compound Past, (4) A Future to an Indefinite 
with Would or Should, (5) A Compound Future to a 
Compound Indefinite with Would or Should, (6) An Indefi- 
nite with a Present Auxiliary to one with a Past Auxiliary, 
and (7) A Compound Indefinite with a Present Auxiliary 
to one with a Past Auxiliary. Similar changes occur in the 
Tenses following a Hypothetical Tense (or a Substitute for 
one) in Elementary Sentences. 

aUOTATION. 

Quotation is the repetition of the previous language of 
a person, either by himself or by some other person. 

A Formal Quotation is one preceded by words indi- 
cating that it is a quotation. 

An Informal Quotation is one not preceded by such 
words. 



OF THE EN0LI8E LANG XT A GE. 207 

A Direct Quotation is one rehearsing the exact 
words of a person, and not introduced by the word " that ". 

An Indirect Quotation is one introduced by the word 
" that ", and rehearsing not the exact words of a person, but 
only the substance of his expression. Of this there are three 
cases. 

1st Case. In Indirect Quotation from one's self^ the 
Tenses are changed as in general Indirect Discourse ; but 
the Pronouns are not changed. 

2nd Case. In Indirect Quotation from' a person ad- 
dressed^ the Tenses are changed ; and the pronouns of the 
1st Person are changed to the 2nd. 

3d Case. In Indirect Quotation from a person not ad- 
dressed^ the Tenses are changed; Pronouns of the 1st Per- 
son are changed to the 3d ; and those of the 2nd Person are 
changed to Nouns. 

EXAMPLES. 

. 1. They are honest, and will pay all the debts which they have con- 
tracted or may contract. 

2. I thought that they were honest, and would pay all the debts 
which they had contracted or might contract. 

3. We had thought that they were honest and would pay their debts. 

4. One would think that they were honest and would pay their debts. 

5. You would have thought that they were honest, and would pay 
their debts. 

6. I had been in that City previously ; I went there yesterday ; I have 
been there to-day ; I shall go there to-morrow ; I may go again on 
Wednesday ; I shall have been there twice more before Saturday ; I 
would live there if I could ; and I should have lived there these five 
years past, if I had consulted my own pleasure in the matter. 

7. He said that he had been in that City previously ; that he had 
gone there the day before ; that he had been there that day ; that he 
should go there the next day ; that he might go again on Wednesday • 
that he should have been there twice more before Saturday ; that he 
would live there if he could ; and that he would have lived there these 
five years past, if he had consulted his own pleasure in the matter. 

8. I live in Boston ; and I have lived there three years. 

9. Thou saidst that Thou livedst in Boston ; and that thou hadst 
lived there three years. 

10. Thou sayest that Thou livest in Boston ; and that thou hast 
lived there three years. 



208 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

11. I and thou and he will go together. 

12. He said that He and the two others would go together. 

13. The Bible says "There is no peace to the wicked." 

14. I found the man " clothed and in his right mind," and glad to see 
me. 

15. It is true that time and tide will not wait for us more than for 
others. 

16. I wish that I knew where my hook is. 

17. I wish that I felt more certainty about this business. 

CONTRACTIONS OF INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 
Substitution. Indirect Discourse is often contracted 
by substituting Infinitives or Participles for the Tenses. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. He feared that they would do this particular thing. 

2. He feared them to do this particular thing. 
8. He feared them doing this particular thing. 

4. He feared their doing this particular thing. 

5. They suspected that he had done this mischief. 

6. They suspected him to have done this mischief. 

7. They suspected him doing this mischief. 

8. They suspected his doing this mischief. 

ADVERBS. 

Use. Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, Copulas, Ad- 
jectives, and Adverbs. 

Adverbs and Nouns. Adverbs are sometimes appar- 
ently used to limit Nouns; but those Adverbs were former- 
ly Adjectives, and are to be considered as Adjectives still 
when they limit Nouns. Such Archaisms should be avoided. 

Old Forms. Some Adverbs are old inflectional forms, 
or Cases, of Adjectives or Pronouns, as '' When ", '' where ", 
"whence ", &c. 

Hence, &C. Before the words " hence ", " thence ", and 
" whence ", the Preposition ^'■from, " should not be used. 

Two Negatives in the same Simple Sentence neutral- 
ize each other, leaving the Sentence Affirmative, as He was 
not unwilling = He was willing. 

Modal Adverbs. Adverbs of time, certainty, contin- 
gency, negation, <fcc., are sometimes used to modify the 
Copula, and in Verbal Sentences they are often used to mod- 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 209 

ify the manner of the assertion, and are then called Modal 
Adverbs. 

Absurdities. An Adverb is never used independently, 
nor to modify a Preposition, or a Proposition, or two sepa- 
rate v^ords at the same time. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions are used to connect Words, or Phrases, 
or Sentences ; and for either of these purposes an Absolute 
Conjimction, or a pair of Correlative Conjunctions maj be 
used. 

Elements. Several Elements of a Sentence are united 
by Conjunctions into a Compound Element, when they col- 
lectively perform a single office in the Sentence. 

Sentences. Several Sentences are united by Conjunc- 
tions into a Compound Sentence, when they sustain such re- 
lations to each other as are expressed by the Conjunctions. 

" Both. " is not a Conjunction, but a Pronominal Adjec- 
tive. 

" And '' is used singly, and sometimes connects Words 
or Phrases. 

^^Lest " is used singly, and always connects Sentences. 

**But"is sometimes used singly, and never connects 
Words or Phrases. 

" Or '' is sometimes used singly, and sometimes appears 
to connect Words or Phrases ; but in those cases the lan- 
guage is elliptical ; and the real connection is between Sen- 
tences. 

All Other Conjunctions are used in pairs, and usually 
connect Sentences. " That", " than ", " as ", and " so " are 
never used as Conjunctions. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

A Preposition is used to show the relation between a 
ISToun, Pronoun, Yerb, or Adjective, and the Object of the' 
Preposition. 

Opposites. Some Prepositions are nearly opposite in 
meaning to others. 



210 A COMPLETE 8CIENTIFI0 GRAMMAR 

Prefixes. Many Prefixes of words were formerly used 
as Prepositions. 

Contradictions. A Preposition following a word 
should not be opposed in meaning to the Prefix of the word. 

Absurdities. Hence it is absurd to say " averse to ", 
*' different to ", " adverse from ", " opposite from ", " differ 
with ", " dissent to", " emigrate into ", "immigrate from ", 
&c. 

*' Among" signifies "in the mong " (i. e.menge^ mul- 
titude, or number) ; and hence it is improper to say " among 
the two." 

*^ Between " means " by the two " ; hence it is improper 
to say " between the three ", *' between every word ", &c. 

Two Prepositions occurring together, as "from be- 
tween ", &c., imply an Ellipsis. The Object of the first one 
is omitted. 

EXERCISES. 

1. The proceedings of the then Ministry were very extraordinary. 

2. He went to England, whence he proceeded to Germany. 

3. The facts of the case are not unknown to them. 

4. Thomas or William will bring the desired information. 

5. He will proceed or return in a short time. 

6. Neither Algebra nor Geometry is so difficult as some suppose. 

7. The enemies came from over the sea. 

8. The fiend blows mildew from between his withered lips. 

t SECTION V.-IDIOMS. 

Idioms are expressions peculiar to a Language, and are 
frequently difficult to analyze. 

Anomalies. Many Idioms appear anomalous through 
ignorance of their origin. Some of them are really wrong, 
and should be corrected ; others are easily resolved when 
the Ellipses are supplied. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. The grain is ripe enough (for one) to cut (it). 

2. The grain is ripe enough (for itself) to be cut. 

3. Many a man=A many of men. 

4. Now a days=In the now of days. Quotha=Quoth he. 

5. A ten foot pole = A ten- foot pole ; &c. 

6. " Of lesser note " should be '■ Of less note ". 



OF TEE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 211 

7. He was driving pIow=He was driving (the team of a) plow. 

8. " Who was you talking with " '? should be " With whom were you 
talking'"! 

9. The goods sell (themselves) rapidly=The goods are sold rapidly. 
(This last Idiom comes from the French, in which Reflexive Verbs 

like " se vendre " [to sell themselves, or to sell one's self], are regularly 
employed instead of a Passive Voice.) 

10. The house is being built=The house is (in the process of) being 
built=The house is (situated) in the process of that (thing) it is built. 

This is much better expressed by saying " The house is built ", not- 
withstanding a little ambiguity in the last expression. 

A better form still is " The house is building", which equals The 
house is (in) building=:The house is (situated in the process of) 
building. 

11. He was offered (to, in respect to) a seat. 

12. He took her to wife = He took her for a wife. 

13. The horse and chaise is at the door=The (equipage consisting of 
the) horse and chaise is at the door. 

14. Bread and milk is the best food for children = (Food consisting 
of ) bread and milk is the best food for children. 

15. He was found fault with==He was found with fault. 
It would be better to say Fault was found with him. 

16. The object was lost sight of=The object was lost (in respect) of 
sight. 

17. " The coat was wet through and through ", i. e., completely 
through. 

This expression " through and through " is a kind of Reduplica- 
tion for Emphasis, analogous to the Greek " anthropos anthropos ", 
" man man ", i. e., any man whatever. 

18. The rule must be lived up to^It) must be lived up to the rule. 

19. " I had rather be myself the slave." 

In this and similar examples " had " is not an Auxiliary, but a 
Principal Verb, — used for " have ", " has ", " would have ", or " should 
have " ; and the Verb or Copula following it is an Infinitive. 

This example=I would have it rather myself to be the slave. 

" We had need pray "=We have need to pray. 

Such a lesson had need be early begun=Such a lesson has need to 
be, &c. 

Instead of saying " I had rather" it is much better to say " I would 
rather ", &c. 

20. They were all rescued (and this statement is exact) to a man. 

21. He went to Boston, whence he proceeded to Hartford=He went 
to Boston, from which (place) he proceeded to Hartford. 



212 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

t CHAPTER III.-ORNAMENTATIOK 

Ornamentation is the beautifying of discourse. 

Figures of Speech, are such xDeculiarities in the structure 
of sentences as are designed to make them forcible or pleasing. 

Ellipsis is the omission of words which can be easily supplied. 

Example. — A horse ! A horse ! My kingdom for a horse.' 

Pleonasm is the use of superjluous words. 

Example. — I saw it with my own eyes. — I, that speak to ye. 

Iteration is the repetition of an expression, in the same, or a 
slightly different form. 

Example. — " The hills and the valleys are sand, sand, still sand, 
and only sand, and sand, and sand again." 

" She winks and giggles and simpers. 

And simpers and giggles and winks ; 
And though she talks but little, 

'Tis a great deal more than she thinks." 

Euphemism is the use of a mild expression instead of a 
coarse or offensive one. 

Exam.ple, — a. The man lies. 

b. The gentleman has fallen into an unfortunate mistake. 

CircnmloCTltion is the use of a long expression instead of a 
short one. 

Example. — a. I have received your letter, and will come. 

b. I hasten to say that your late esteemed favor has already been 
received and heartily welcomed, and that, as soon as I shall have been 
able to adjust my affairs in such a manner as to render it practicable, 
I will do myself the pleasure to accept of your very kind invitation, 
and will certainly come. 

Anacolnthon is leaving a Sentence unfinished, and proceed- 
ing with a new Sentence. 

EXAMPLES. 

The signers of the Declaration of Independence, — where are they 
now*? 

The infinity of worlds and the narrow spot of earth which we call 
our country or our home, the eternity of ages and the few hours of life, 
the Almighty power of God and human nothingness, — it is impossible 
to think of these in succession without a feeling like that which is pro- 
duced by the sublimest eloquence. 

Dialectism is an imitation of local, class, or individual pecu- 
liarities of speech. 

EXAMPLES. 

(Yankee.) Waal naow I vum, that 'tarnal critter of a caow has got 
into the barn and gone to eatin up the corn. 



OF THE EJS'aLISH LANG TTAGE. 213 

(Virginia.) I woosh that man 'd take up aour skule ; 'cause he's got 
right smart o' larnin. The chap that teecht last Winter was an ornery 
feller, and used to git stalled ev'ry day in Rethmetic. 

(Western.) I say, straunger, yu'd better not go that way onless yur 
able to whip yur weight in wild-cats ; fur yull like enuf meet Bill 
Stokes ; and if ye du, dog on't, yu'll get catawompusly chawed up. 

(Yorkshire, Eng.) Ah sudn't wonder bud, when some foak hear o' 
me staptin' on a paper, they'll say " What in't world hez maad Dicky 
Dickeson bethink hizzen o' cummin' sich a caaper as that 1 " 

(Suffolk, Eng.) I was axed some stounds agon, by our 'sessor at Mul- 

laden, to make inquiration o' yeou if Master B had pahd in that 

there money into the bank. 

Archaism is the use of ancient peculiarities. 

Example. — I think that cannot be our old friend Jones, for it is 
" certainly straunge gif hi cometh in swilc a guise." 

Transposition is variation from the ordinary arrangement of 
words. 

Use. This Figure is used for the purpose of Emphasis, 
Euphony, or Variety ; or to give an air of Originality, Ludi- 
crousness, or Dignity to the Sentence. 

The Principal Variations are the following : 

1. Exchanging the positions of the Subject and Predicate. 

2. Placing Adjectives after their Nouns or Pronouns. 

3. Placing Adverbs before Verbs, or after Adjectives, &c. 

4. Placing Prepositional Phrases before the words they limit. 

5. Placing an Object before its Verb. 

6. Periodicity, or reserving some princiioal word for the last 
place in the Sentence, so that the sense is suspended tiU. the 
close. 

7. Reversion, or changing the order of the Members of a Close 
or Compact Sentence. 

8. Inversion, or placing one Member of a Compound Sentence 
between the parts of the other. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Great is Diana of the Ephesians. Dark was the night. 

2 Responded he, with hand upraised, and visage wrathful black. 

3. At fifty, no man easily finds a woman beautiful as the houries, and 
wise as Zobeide. 

4. Joyfully and triumphantly, with no misgivings or fears, he waited 
for death. 

5. Without doubt he was a man strong physically and intellectually. 

6. This man he preferred ; and him he would have for a companion. 



214 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

7. I would not pretend to any unusual patriotism, or to have con- 
ferred any important benefits upon the Country, or upon my friends, or 
upon any body else, if I were in his place. 

8. Who dares do right, though knaves and fools may scoff, 
That man shall ne'er the robes of honor doff. 

9. He desires applause, though he is entirely unwilling to deserve 
applause. 

10. I will, if you desire it, produce the evidence of this assertion. 
A Simile is a direct formal comparison. 

£xainple. — He rushed like a tiger on his victim. 

A Metaphor is an implied comparison. 

Example. — The soul mounts triumphant on the wings of faith. 

An Allegory is an extended Metaphor. 

EXAMPLE.-Psalms 80 : 8-16. 

Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt ; thou hast cast out the hea- 
then and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it, and didst cause 
it to take deep root ; and it filled the land. 

The hills were covered with the shadow of it ; and the boughs there- 
of were like the goodly cedars. 

She sent out her boughs unto the sea, and her branches unto the 
rivers. 

Why hast thou broken down her "hedges, so that all thoy which pass 
by the Avay do pluck her ? 

The boar out of the wood doth waste it ; and the wild beast of the 
field doth devour it. 

Return, we beseech Thee, God of hosts ; look down from heaven ; 
and behold, and visit this Vine, and the vineyard which thy right hand 
hath planted, and the branch that thou madest strong for thyself. It 
is burnt with fire; it is cut down ; they perish at the rebuke of thy 
countenance. 

An Antithesis is an expression of which one part is in oppo- 
sition or contrast to the other. 

Example. — Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull. 

A Hyperbole is an excessive exaggeration, intended to be 
understood as such. 

Example, — He was so gaunt, the case of a flageolette was a palace 
for him, 

That fellov/ is so tall that he does not know when his feet are cold. 

Irony is a mode of expression in which the literal meaning is 
exactly opposite to tha.t intended. 

Example. — Pope Hildebrand, you know, was remarkable for his 
meekness and humility. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA GE. 215 

Metonomy is calling a thing by the name of some other thing 
to which iu has some relation. 

Example. — Gray hairs (i. e. old persons) should be respected. 

SynBCdoche is calHng a part by the name of the whole, or 
the whole by the name of a part. 

Examples. — This roof (i. e. house) shall be his protection. 

All the world knows (i. e. many persons know) that Julius Caesar 
was a great Koraan General, and the first Emperor. 

Personification is the representation of animals or inanimate 
things as if they were persons. 

Exam.ple. — See ! Winter comes to rule the varied year. 

Apostrophe is a direct address to some person or thing either 
present or absent. 

Example. — Ye Crags and Peaks, I'm with you once again, &c. 

Interrogation is asking a question in such a manner as to in- 
dicate emphatically a contrary assertion. 

Exam.ple. — But when shall we be stronger '? Will it be when our 
enemies have bound us hand and foot % 

Paralipsis is pretending to omit what is really mentioned. 

Example. — I will not call him villain, because it would be unparlia- 
mentary. I will not call him fool, because he happens to be Chancellor 
of the Exchequer. 

An Allusion is an indirect reference, — usually to some occur- 
rence or statement. 

Example. — When you go into the museum, be Argus ; but not 
Briareus. 

A Plin is the use of a word in an unexpected sense so as to 
produce a ludicrous effect. 

EXAMPLES. 

A man quoted the expression " The quality of Mercy is not strained " 
to account for the muddiness of the river Mersey. 

Another man, in reply to the remark that punning is a low kind of 
wit, answered " Yes, it is the foundation of all wit.'' 

Vision is the representation of absent or imaginary things as 
if they were present and seen. 

EXAMPLES. 

" For a field of the dead rushes red on my sight, 
And the clans of Culloden are scattered in fight. 
They rally — they bleed for their kingdom and crown ! 
Woe, woe to the riders that trample them down ! " &c. 



216 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

" Look on liim ! through his dungeon grate, 

Feebly and cold, the morning light 
Comes stea'ing round him, dim and late, 
As if it loathed the sight." &c. 

Climax is a figure in wliicli several ideas are arranged in a 
regular ascending series from the least impressive to the most 
impressive. 

EXAMPLES. 

"A Scotch mist becomes a shower ; and a shower a flood; and a 
flood a storm; and a storm a tempest; and a tempest thunder and 
lightning ; and thunder and lightning heaven-quake and earth-quake." 

" What a piece of work is man ! How noble in reason ! 

How infinite in faculties ! In form and moving 

How express and admirable ! In action how like an angel! 

In apprehension how like a God ! " 

t PART IV. -PROSODY. (See Note 22.) 

Prosody is that part of Grammar which pertains to Poetry. 

Poetry is Artistic Composition, whose chief end in respect 
to form is beauty. 

Prose is Ordinary Composition, whose chief end in respect 
to form is utility. 

The Beauty of Poetic Expression generally consists in 
resemblances and arrangements which are perceived to be de- 
signed. 

DIVISI0NS.-7. 

The Divisions of Prosody are 1. Versification, 2. Or- 
namentation, 3, Adaptation, 4. Arrangement, 5. Classification, 
6. Poetic License, 7. Poetic Analysis. 



CHAPTER I-VERSIFICATION. 
SECTION I.-MEASURES. 

Measure is the resemblance to each other of the successive 
portions of a line, in respect to time and Accent. 

The Essential Characteristic of Modern English (and 
Classical) Verse is Measure, while Rhyme and other Ornaments 
are unessential. 

The Quantity of a Syllable is its length, or the time occu- 
pied in pronouncing it. 

A Long Syllable is one which is accented. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA GE. 217 

A Short Syllable is one which is not accented. 

The Time of a Long Syllable is usually equal to that of 
two short ones. 

A Great Syllable is one which is especially prolonged. 

The Time of a G-reat Syllable is usually equal to that of 
three short ones. 

A "V'erse is a line of definite length in which the Accent 
recurs at regular intervals. 

A Foot is one of the parts into which a Verse is divided by 
the Accent, and consists of one, two, three, or four syllables. 

A Measure is the time occupied by a Foot in Pronunciation. 

Equahty of Measures. The Measures of the same Verse are 
all equal, and are divided according to the syllables of the cor- 
responding Feet. 

Exception. As Imperfect Rhymes are sometimes allowed, so, 
occasionally, a Foot longer or shorter than the others by the time 
of one short syllable may be used in a verse. 

Scanning is resolving Verses into their component Feet. 

SECTION 2.-EEET. 

GENEIIA.-4. 

1 . A Macron is a Foot consisting of one Great Syllable. 

2. A Disyllabic Foot is one consisting of two Syllables. 

3. A Trisyllabic Foot is one consisting of three Syllables. 

4. A Tetrasyllable Foot is one consisting of four Syllables. 

GENUS 2.-DISYLLABIC FEET. 

SPECIES.-4. 

1 . An Iambus is a Foot whose first syllable is short, and sec- 
ond long, as " remain ", " control ", *' suppose ", &c. 

3. A Trochee is a Foot having its first syllable long, and 
second short, as "greatness", "useful", "mischief", &c. 

2. A Spondee is a Foot of two long syllables, as " amen", 
" all this ", &c. 

4. A Pyrrhic is a Foot of two short syllables, as the last two 
in " distressfully ", &c. 

GENUS S.-THISYLLABIC FEET. 
SPECIES.-8. 

1 . A Dactyl is a Foot having the first syllable long, and the 
other two short, as "usefully ", "plentiful ", &c. 

2. An Anapaest is a Foot having the last syllable long, anc? 
the other two short, as "intercede ", " discommode ", kc. 



218 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

3. An Amphibrach is a Foot having the second syllable 
long, and the other two short, as " remember ", " confusing ", &c. 

4. A Tribrach is a Foot of three short syllables, as the last 
three in " infallibleness ", &c. 

5. A Bacchius is a Foot having the first syllable short and 
the other two long, as " before them ", "sujopose now ", &c. 

6. An Antibacchins is a Foot having the last syllable short 
and the other two long, as " great forces ", " wide river ", &c. 

7. An Amphimacer is a Foot having the second syllable 
short and the other two long, as '* wait a while ", '* come away ", 
&c. 

8. A Molossns is a Foot of three long syllables, as "now 
amen ", " there they go ", &c. 

EXAMPLES OF SCANNING. 

1. Not half I so swift | the trera | bling doves | can fly. 

2. Kound us | roars the | tempest | louder. 

3. Hail to the | chief who in | triumph ad | vances here. 

4. At the close | of the day | when the ham | let is still. 

5. Ne'er ranged in | the forest | nor smoked on | the platter. 

6. Boldly they | rode and well | into the | jaws of death. 

GENUS 4.-TETRASYLLABIC (COMPOUND) FEET. 

Tetrasyllabic Feet are produced by compounding and 
doubling the Disyllabic Feet. 

SPECIES.-16. 

1. A Choriarabus, — -^ -^ — , is composed of a Trochee (or Choree^ 
and an Iambus. 

2. An Antispast, -^ w , is the above reversed, or an Iambus 

and a Trochee. 

3. An Ionic a majore, -w ~-^ , is a Spondee and a Pyrrhic. 

4 An Ionic a minore, -_• -w , is a Pyrrhic and a Spondee. 

5. A First Peon, — ^-^ -w — , is a Trochee and a Pyrrhic. 

6. A Second Peon, ^^ — _- -^ , is an Iambus and a Pyrrhic. 

7. A Third Peon, ->-'--' — -— , is a Pyrrhic and a Trochee. 

8. A Fourth Peon, v_^ -— — — , is a Pyrrhic and an Iambus. 

9. A First Epitrite, -— ' , is an Iambus and a Spondee, 

10. A Second Epitrite, — -w , is a Trochee and a Spondee. 

11. A Third Epitrite, -— — , is a Spondee and an Iambus. 

12. A Fourth Epitrite, v^ , is a Spondee and a Trochee. 

13. A Diiambus, — — -w — , is a Double Iambus. 

14. A Ditrochee, — -^ — w , is a Double Trochee. 

15. A Dispondee, , is a Double Spondee. 



OF THE- ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 219 

16. A Dipyrrhic, w ^^ w ^^ , is a Double Pyrrhic, or Proceleusmatic. 
Note. It should be observed that the Peons consist each of a long 
syllable with three short ones ; and in the First Peon the long syllable 
has the first place, in the Second Peon it has the second place, &c.; also 
each Epitrite consists of a short syllable with three long ones ; and in 
the First Epitrite the ohort syllable has the first place ; in the Second 
Epitrite it has the second place, &c. This will make it easy to remem- 
ber the whole arrangement. 

EXAMPLES. 
Choriambic Trimeters. 

Over the sea, | weary they go | over the sea, — 
Wearily here, wearily there, over the sea, — 
Tossed by the waves, pushed by the winds, driven by fate. 
Month after month, year after year, early and late ; 
Diverse the lands, various the climes, many the shores, 
Where they supposed they should obtain rest from the oars, — 
Where they should build walls for themselves, happy and free, 
After their cruise, stormy and sad, over the sea. — G. 

Third Peonic Tetrameters. 

In the meadow | intervening | they were walking | all together, 
And were talking and i-emarking of the season and the weather. 
When the oldest of the members, Mr. Weston, of Nebraska, 
Who, was thinking of departing in the morning for Alaska, 
Turning sudden to the beautiful and lovely Miss Mahoning, 
Interjected some expressions of a querulous bemoaning. — G. 

SECTION 3.-VERSES. 
CLASSES.-8. 

1 . An Iambic Verse is one composed wholly or chiefly of 
Iambic Feet. 

2. A Trochaic "Verse is one composed wholly or chiefly of 
Trochaic Feet. 

3. A Dactylic Verse is one composed wholly or chiefly of 
Dactyls. 

4. An Anapaestic Verse is one composed wholly or chiefly 
of Anapaests. 

5. An Amphibrachic Verse is one composed wholly or 
chiefly of Amphibrachs. 

6. An Amphimaceric Verse is one composed wholly or 
chiefly of Amphimacers. 

7. A Choriambic Verse is one composed wholly or chiefly 
of Ohoriambics. 



220 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 

8. A Peonic Verse is one composed wholly or chiefly of 
Peons. 

0RDEIIS.-2. 

1 . A Pure Verse is one composed entirely of one kind of 
feet. 

2. A Mixed Verse is one having feet of different kinds/ 

GENEIIA.-8.-METERS. 

A Meter is a set of Feet constituting a Verse. 

1. A Monometer is a Verse consisting of one Foot. 

2. A Dimeter is a Verse of two Feet. 

3. A Trimeter is a Verse of three Feet. 

4. A Tetrameter is a Verse of four Feet. 

5. A Pentameter is a Verse of five Feet. 

6. A Hexameter is a Verse of six Feet. 

7. A Heptam.eter is a Verse of seven Feet. 

8. An Octometer is a Verse of eight Fe6t. 

SPECIES.-IO. 

1. Blank Verse is verse without ornament, except occa- 
sional Alliteration. 

2. R'h.3rmed Verse is verse ornamented with Rhyme. 

3. Alliterative Verse is verse regularly ornamented with 
Alliteration. 

4. Paralleled Verse is verse ornamented with Parallelism. 

5. Imitative Verse is verse ornamented with Imitation. 

6. Annominative Verse is verse ornamented with An- 
nomination. 

7. Euphnistic Verse is verse ornamented with Euphuism. 

8. Liipogrammatic Verse is verse ornamented with Lipo- 
grammatism. 

9. Macaronic Verse is verse ornamented with Macaro- 
nism. 

10. Acrostic Verse is verse ornamented with Acrosticism. 

SECTION 4.-PAUSES. 

Poetic Pauses are those peculiar to Poetry. 

1 . The Final Pause is that made at the end of a line, to in- 
dicate the close of the verse. 

2. A Caesural Pause is one sometimes made to occur at or 
near the middle of a line, thus cutting the Verse into halves, or 
hemistichs. 

3. The Demi-Caesural Pause is one which sometimes, in 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 221 

long lines, is made to occur at or near tlie middle of each hemis- 
tich, thus cutting the verse into quarters. 

The Time of these Pauses, when they do not coincide -with 
Grammatical or Rhetoric Pauses, should be the shortest which 
can be perceived. 

SECTION 5.-N0TATI0N. 

Poetic Notation is the method of representing the structure 
of verses by Symbols. Most commonly the Macron ( - ) is used 
to represent a long syllable, and the Breve (•— -) to represent a 
short one. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Iambic Pentameter, [v-^ — 1^-^ — |-^ — l^-' — | --^ — I| 

2. Dactylic Tetrameter. | — v_^^| — w^v^j — ww| — w--^ || 

3. Anapaestic Trimeter. | ->--v_. — [.^_- — |-^~^ — || 

4. Amphibrachic Trimeter. \ ^^ — ^.^j-— - — ^^|~^ — w^|( 

5. Mixed Hexameter. | — ^^ \ — -^^^l — v^v_^[ ] — ww 

6. I At the close | of the day, | when the ham | let is still || 

7. " The skies looked coldly down 

As on a royal crown ; 
Then with drop for drop, at leisure, 
They began to rain for pleasure." — Mrs. Browning. 
\- -1^-1- -II 



CHAPTER II-ORNAMENTATION. 

Omamentation is the use of various expedients to beautify a 
composition. 

SECTION l.-RHYME. 

Rhjmie is the correspondence in sound of certain parts of a 
Verse or Stanza. 

A rthynae is a pair of words whose terminations correspond in 
sound. • 

A Single Rhyme is one in which the last syllable of one 
word corresponds with the last syllable of the olher, as '* remain " 
and *' contain". 



222 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR. 

A Double Uliyilie is one in which the last two syllables of 
one word correr.poud to the last two syllables of the other, as 
" supposing " and " disclosing ". 

A Triple Uliyine is one in which the last three syllables of 
one word correspond to the last three of the other, as "depend- 
ently " and '' resplendently ". (See Note 18.) 

A Perfect Rhjrme is one in which the vowel sounds of the 
final syllables of the two words are the same ; the parts following 
the vowels are the same ; the parts preceding the vowels are 
different; and the syllables are accented, as "expand" and 
''withstand". 

An Imperfect R/hyrae is one lacking in some of these con- 
ditions, as "explain" and "exclaim"; "despair" and "com- 
peer " ; " repose " and " suppose " ; " compose " and " deplore " ; 
"displease" and "increase"; "release" and "rehearse"; 
" devour " and " outpour " ; "better " and " after " ; &c. 

A nich Rhyme (used often in French) is an Imperfect 
Rhyme in which the final syllable of one word is exactly the same 
as that of the other. 

Half R-hjrme is the correspondence of final consonants only, 
as "bad" and "led"; "sin" and "run"; "thrash" and 
"crush" ; &c. 

Assonance is the correspondence of Yowels only, as "come " 
and "sun " ; &c. 

Example. " Softly now a sifting 

Snows on landscape frozen ; — 

Thickly fall theflakelets, 

Feathery-light, together, 

Shower of silver pouring, 

Soundless all around us, 

Field and river folding 

Fair in mantle rarest, "^ii^om the Icelandic. 

Old Hh3rmes often are imperfect now merely because the 
pronunciation of words has changed since they were written. 

The Use of Imperfect Rhymes should be avoided when it 
is possible. 

Terminal Rhymes are those placed at the ends of lines, as 
" In human works, though laborad on with pain, 
A thousand movements scarce one purpose gain." — Pope. 
Initial Rhymes are those placed at the beginning of lines, as 
Length of days has never yet excused 
Strength perverted, — noble powers abused. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 223 

Line Rhymes are those introduced within a line, as 
When the south wind prevailed^ on the morrow they sailed. 
'^ Might vfiil yield to right ; and the strong will do no wrong in that 

time ; 
Pain will cease to reign ; and no strife will mar the life in that clime." 

SECTION 2.-ALLITEEATI0N. 

Alliteration is the correspondence of sounds at the beginning 
of words. 

The Use of Alliteration in English is that of an occasional 
ornament ; but in Anglo-Saxon it was essential, constituting the 
principal ornament. 

EXAMPLES. 

" And now is religion a rider, a roamer by the streets, 

A leader of love days, and a land buyer." — Piers Plowman. 

*' Silently sat the artist alone, 

Carving a Christ from the ivory bone. 

Little by little, with toil and pain. 

He won his way through the sightless grain." — Boker. 

" An Austrian Army, awfully arrayed, 

Boldly by battery beseiged Belgrade." 

The Abuse of Alliteration is seen in this last example. It 
is the beginning of a poem of twenty six lines, in which every 
word of the first Hne begins with " a ", every word of the second 
with " 6 ", every word of the third with " g ", and so on through 
the Alphabet. Another Example of this abuse is found in a Latin 
poem called Pugna Porcorum, or the Battle of the Pigs, and con- 
taining several hundred lines, in which every word begins with 
<'_p". — A more recent example is a poem of twenty-eight lines, 
called "A Serenade in M Flat", in which every word begins 

with m. 

SECTION 3.-PARALLELISM. 

Parallelism is the matching or contrasting wi+;h each other 
of the different parts of a Verse or of a Stanza. It was the prin- 
cipal Ornament of the ancient Hebrew Poetry. 

SPECIES.-3. 

1. Synonymous Parallelism is that in which the two 
parts of the Parallel express the same (or nearly the same) sense, 
but in diffd^ent words. 

EXAMPLES. 

" Fret not thyself because of evil doers ; 

Neither be thou envious against the workers of iniquity." — Damd, 



224 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

" But .where shall wisdom he found 1 

And where is the place of undeistanding 1 " — Job. 

" And the destruction of the trangressors and of the sinners shall be to- 
gether : 

And they that forsake the Lord shall be consumed." — Isaiah. 
" There shall come a star out of Jacob ; 
And a Scepter shall rise out of Israel." — Balaam. 

" How long shall the wicked, Jehovah, 
How long shall the wicked triumph 1 " 
" Kings shall see him, and shall rise up ; 
Princes, and they shall worship him." — Isaiali. 
*' Come and let us return unto Jehovah, 
For he hath torn, and he will heal us ; 
He hath smitten, and he will bind us up." — Hosea. 
"Askalon shall see it and shall fear ; 
Gaza shall also see it, and shall be greatly pained ; 
And Ekron shall be pained because her expectation is put to shame ; 
And the king shall perish from Gaza ; 
And Askalon shall not be inhabited." — Zechariah. 
" From the heavens Jehovah looketh down; 
He seeth all the children of men ; 
From the seat of his rest he contemplateth 
All the inhabitants of the earth." — Psalms. 

" The Lord reigneth ; let the people tremble ; 

He sitteth between the cherubim ; let the earth be moved." — Psalms. 

2. Antithetic Parallelism is that in which the two parts of 
the Parallel express opposite sentiments. 

EXAMPLES. 

" The blows of a friend are faithful ; 

But the kisses of an enemy are treacherous. 

The cloyed will trample upon a honey-comb ; 

But to the hungry every bitter thing is sweet." — Proverbs. 
" There is who maketh himself rich, and wanteth all things ; 
Who maketh himself poor, yet hath much wealth." — Proverbs. 
" The bows of the mighty are broken ; 
And they that stumbled are girded with strength ; 
The full have hired themselves for bread ; 
And the hungry have ceased to hunger." — 1st Samue^nd. 

3. Constructive Parallelism is that in which the two parts 
of the Parallel have the same construction. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 225 

EXAMPLES. 

" The law of Jehovah is perfect, restoring the soul ; 

The testimony of Jehovah is sure, making wise the simple. 

The precepts of Jehovah are right, rejoicing the heart ; 

The commandment of Jehovah is clear, enlightening the eyes." — Psalms. 

" The nations raged ; the kingdoms were moved ; 

He uttered a voice ; the earth was dissolved." — Psalms. 

SECTION 4.-0THER ORNAMENTS. 

I. — Imitation is the representation of sounds and movements 
by the sounds of the words and the movement of the verse, 

EXAMPLES. 

1. " 'Tis not enough no harshness gives offense ; 
The sound must seem an echo to the sense. 
Soft is the strain when zephyr gently blows. 

And the smooth stream in smoother numbers flows ; 

But when loud surges lash the sounding shore. 

The hoarse rough verse should like the torrent roar. 

When Ajax strives some roclc's vast weight to throw, 

The line too labors : and the words move slow. 

Not so when swift Camilla scours the plain. 

Flies o'er th' unbending corn, and skims along the main." — Pope. 

2. " A needless Alexandrine ends the song. 

That like a wounded snake drags its slow length along." — Id. 

3. " Over the valley with speed like the wind all the steeds were a 

galloping." 

4. " At each bound he could feel his scabbard of steel 

Smiting his stallion's flanks." — Longfellow. 

5. Quadrupe \ dante pu \ trem soni \ tu quatit \ ungula \ campum. 

— VirgiL 

6. OIV in I ter se \ se ma | gna vi \ hracliia \ tollunt. — Id. 

7. " Hail to the chief who in triumph advances ! 

Honored and blest be the evergreen pine. 
Long may the tree, in his banner th'at glances. 
Flourish, the shelter and grace of our line. 
Heaven send it happy dew — 
Earth lend it sap anew — 
Gaily to bourgeon and broadly to grow. 
While everj^ highland glen 
Sends our shout back again, 
Roderick Vich Alpine dhu, ho ! ieroe ! " — Scott. 

8. Southey's " Cataract of Lodore " is another example. 



226 ^ COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

n. Annomination is opposing to each other words of simi- 
lar sound, but of different sense or use. 

Example. — " Twilight stillness when I drink. 
And myself am gazing still, 
Thinking only that I think, 

Then will never rest my will 
Till to rest I bid it sink." — From the German. 

m. Euph-Tlism is nearly the same thing as Annomination. 
Exaniple. — " Blessed be thou, Urania, the sweetest 

Fairnesse, and the fairest sweetnesse." — Philip Sydney. 
See also Mrs. Browning's " Man and Nature ". (Ap. Chap. III., No. 24.) 

rV. Liippogrammatism is the puerile device of leaving out 
certain letters from a Composition, 

EXAMPLES. 

1. A man wrote a Paraphrase of Homer's lUiad, in which the letter 
" a'' was omitted from the first Book, '• 6" from the Second, and " c " 
from the Third, &c. — Another man wrote a Novel in which the letters 
«' a " and " T' were not used. In the Poem from which the first of the 
following is taken, " c " and " s " are omitted ; and in the second the 
Vowels are all omitted except " <? ". 

2. "Oh! tell me, Queen of Fairyland, 

What elfin lore may do 
To win for me that lily hand 

The hand of her I woo. 
I need not name or herb or draft. 

You know them all too well ; 
Prepare the bowl ; — let it be quaflfed 

By haughty Annabel." — Arthur Locker. 

3. " From Donjon tops no Oroiiooko rolls ; 
Logwood, not lotos, floods Oporto's bowls. 
Troops of old tosspois oft to sot consort ; 
Boxtops our school-boys flog for sport. 
Bold Ostrogoths of ghosts no horror show ; 
On London shop-fronts no hop-blossoms grow. 
To crocks of Gold no Dodo looks for food ; 

On soft cloth footstools no old Fox doth brood," &c, 

V. Macaronism is the mixture of words of different Lan- 
guages. 

Example, — Parvus Jacobus Horner 

Sedebat in corner 

Edens a Christmas pie. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA GE, 227 

Inseruit his thumb ; 

Extrahit a plum, 

Clamans " Quid smart puer am I!'* 

VI. Acrosticism is inserting consecutive letters, syllables, or 
words, in the corresponding parts (usually at the beginning or 
end) of several lines so that being read downwards or upwards 
thej^ form words or sentences. 

Example. — Be not, my friend, so very sure 
Of what you're able to endure ; 
Or think that you, and none beside, 
Know what is needful to provide. 
Note. In this example the first letters of the lines form the word 
" book." 



CHAPTER III -ADAPTATION. 

1 . Iambic Verse is more generally used than any other, and 
seems adapted to a greater variety of subjects. It is es^Decially 
suited to solemn and grave themes. 

2. Trochaic Verse is well fitted for lively subjects. 
iBxample, — " Softly sweet, in Lydian measures. 

Soon he soothed his soul to pleasures. 

War, he sung, is toil and trouble ; 

Honor but an empty bubble ; " &c. — Dry den. 

3. Amphibrachic Verse is best adapted to lively or comic 
subjects. 

iExample. — " Since conjugal passion 
Has come into fashion, 
And marriage so blest on the throne is. 
Like Venus I'll shine. 
Be fond and be fine ; 
And Sir Trusty shall be my Adonis." — Addison. 

4. The Dactylic and Anapaestic Verses are suited to a 
variety of subjects. 

5. Occasional Feet. The Macron, Spondee, Pyrrhic, and 
Tribrach, are used only occasionally, and always in connection 
with other feet. They do not form verses alone ; except that 
sometimes one of them may be used as a Monometer. 

The Macron, when used, commonly occupies the first or the 
last place in the verse ; but it may be used in other places, espe- 
cially if followed by a pause. 



228 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

Example. — " Maud Muller on a summer's day- 
Raked I themea | dow sweet | with hay." — Whittier. 

The Spondee, in Dactylic Hexameters, uniformly occupies 
the sixth place, and may take any other place in the verse except 
the fifth. In Heroic Yerse (Iambic Pentameter) it may occupy 
any place in the line, but is most graceful after a Trochee. 

EXAMPIES. 

" Clearly the | rest I be j hold of the | darked-eyed | sons of A | chaia ; 

Known to me | well are the ] faces of | all ; their | names I re j mem- 
ber ; 

Two, two 1 only re | main whom I | see not a | mong the com | 
manders." — Hawtrey. 

" Good life \ be now j my task ; [ my doubts | are done." — Dryden. 

'•' Load the \ tall hark \ and launch J into | the main." 

'• He spoke | and in | loud tri \ umph spread 
The long contended honors of her head." — Pope. 

The Pyrrhic, in heroic verse, is common in the first and 
fourth places, and sometimes occurs in the second and third. 

Sxamples. — ''■Nov in \ the help | less or | phan dread | a foe." — 

Pope. 
" To farthest shores the ambrosial spirit flies, 
Sweet to I the world | and grate | ful to \ the skies." — Id. 

The Tribrach, in heroic verse, may stand in the third or 
fourth place. 

Examples. — He writes | anon [ ymously \ secure | from harm. 
" And thun | ders down j impet | uous to \ the plain." — Pope. 

The Long Feet (longer than the Spondee) are not admissible 
in Iambic Verse ; and are seldom used at all. 

The Amphimacer is sometimes used to form entire verses ; 
and the Molossus, Bacchius, and Antibacchius occur in connec- 
tion "with it as Occasional Feet. 

Example. — " Flaslipd all their | sabers bare ; 
Flashed as they | turned in air. 
Sabering the | gunners there, 
Charging an | Army, while 

All the world | wondered. 
Plunged in the | battery smoke, 
Right through the | line they broke ; 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA GE. 229 

Cossack and | Russian 
Reeled from the | saber stroke 

Shattered and | sundered. 
Then they rode j back, but not, 

Not the six | hundred." — Tennyson. 

The Trochee, in heroic verse, often occupies the first place 
in the line, and may be used in the third or fourth place. 

^Examples, — " Warms in \ the sun, | refresh | os in | the breeze, 

Glows in I the stars, | and bios ] soms in ] the trees." 

— Pope. 
"■ Eve right | ly called | mother \ of all | mankind." 
" And, stag | gered by | the stroke, [ drops the \ large ox." 

The Amphibrach, in heroic verse, is used only in the fifth, 
place. 

Example, — " What can ennoble sots or slaves, or cowards ? 

Alas ! not all the blood of all the Howards." — Pope. 

The Dactyl, in heroic verse, is most commonly used in the 
first place of the line, but may occur in the third or fourth. 
Examples. — " Furious j he spoke; ] the ang | ry chief | replied." 

At length | he came j again. | Wistfully \ he looked. 

And looked once more upon the golden prize. 

The Anapaest niay be used in any place of the line. 

Example. — And when | he looked j in the face | of that | old man, 

He shrank ] likeaguil [ ty wretch | and hung | his head. 

The Heroic Verse is the most elevated and dignified kind 

of Verse, and consists, in English, of five Feet, generally all 

Iambics ; but occasionally other Feet are interspersed among 

them. 

EXAMPLE. 
" And so there grew great tracts of wilderness 
"Wherein the beast was ever more and more. 
But man was less and less, till Arthur came. 
For first Aurelius lived and fought and died; 
And after him King Uther fought and died ; 
But either failed to make the kingdom one. 
And after these King Arthur for a space, 
And, through the puissance of his Table Round, 
Drew all their petty princedoms under him, 
Their king and head, and made a realm, and reigned." — 

Tennyson. 
The Common Octosyllabic Verse is Iambic Tetrameter, 
■with occasionally a Trochee in the place of an Iambus. 



230 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

iExample, — " It happened on a winter night, 
As authors of the legend write, 
Two brother hermits, saints by trade, 
Taking their tour in masquerade, 
Disguised in tattered habits, went 
To a small village down in Kent, 
Where, in the stroller's canting strain. 
They begged from door to door in vain, — 
Tried every tone might pity win ; — 
But not a soul would let them in." — Dean Swift. 
The Tetrasyllable Feet are adapted to various purposes, but 

are seldom used in English Poetry. In Latin and Greek they 

are common. 



CHAPTER IV.-ARRANGEMENT. 

Arrangement is the grouping of Verses to form Stanzas. 

A Stanza is a system of from two to fourteen verses, forming 
a regular division of a Poem. The end of a Stanza should coin- 
cide with the end of a Sentence. 

Note. A Stanza is often improperly called a Verse. 

CLASSES OF STANZAS.-13. 

1 . A Couplet consists of two lines which rhyme together. 
Uxample. — I saw the bright star which had ushered the day 

In the orient light slowly fading away. 

A Distich, consists of two verses (rhymed or not) making a 
complete sentence, as in the last example. 

2. A Triplet is a Stanza of three lines, all usually rhyming 
together. 

Example. — " These three made unity so sweet 
My frozen heart began to beat. 
Remembering its ancient heat." 

3. A Quatrain is a Stanza of four lines, or verses. 

4. A Quintette is a Stanza of five verses. 

5. A Sestette is a Stanza of six verses. 

6. A Septette is a Stanza of seven verses. 

7. An Octave is a Stanza of eight verses. 

The Class of any Stanza depends upon the number of its 
verses. 

The Number of the Class of any Stanza is one less than 
tho number of its verses. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG TTAGE. 231 

Blank Verse is usually continuous (not arranged in Stanzas 
or Strophes) ; and each verse consists of four, five, or six feet. 

EXAMPLES.-l. 

" As yet 'tis midnight deep. The weary clouds. 

Slow meeting, mingle into solid gloom. 

Now while the drowsy world lies lost in sleep. 

Let me associate with the serious Night 

And Contemplation, her sedate compeer. 

Let me shake off th' intrusive cares of day, 

And lay the meddling senses all aside." — Thompson. 

" Forth into the mighty forest 

Rushed the maddened Hiawatha. 

In his heart was deadly sorrow ; 

In his face a stony firmness ; 

On his brow the sweat of anguish 

Started ; but it froze, and fell not." — Longfellow. 

" This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlocks, 
Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the twilight. 
Stand like Druids of old, with voices sad and prophetic." — Id. 

'* Are they not here in the host, from the shores of Lacedaemon ; 

Or, though they came with the rest in the ships that bound through 

the waters, 
Dare they not enter the fight, or stand in the council of heroes, 
All for fear of the shame and the taunts my crime has awakened 1 " — 

Hawtrey. 

Rhymed Verse is sometimes continuous, but is usually di- 
vided into stanzas. 

I. — ContinTlOUS. Poems of much length in continuous Ehyme 
are rare. 

EXAMPLE. 

Beautiful Day. 
Beautiful, beautiful, beautiful day ; 
Merrily rustle the leaves in their play ; 
Autumn woods revel in colors so gay ; 
Children are laughing ; and happy are they. 
Coming from school in a comical way ; 
Joyous the farmers their corn-fields survey ; 
Drovers are placing their herds in array ; 
Cloudlets the impulse of zephyrs obey ; 
Flowrets of summer have gone to decay ; 
Blue-birds, lamenting in funeral lay, 



232 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

Mournful and saddened still sit on the spray ; 
Sportsmen are hunting the squirrel so gray ; 
Quails to the thicket retreat in dismay ; 
Swallows have left us ; but robins delay ; 
Sparrow and red-bird remain with blue-jay ; 
Silent the crickets ; no katydids stay ; 
Fragrant the meadows with aftermath hay ; 
Sun is resplendent with genial ray ; 
Glories of Nature no pen can portray 
Dazzle and charm us this beautiful day. — C. 

II. Couplets. Stanzas of two lines are common, with verses 
of various lengths. 

1. Tetrameters.— 

" The Judge rode slowly down the lane, 
Smoothing his horse's chestnut mane. 

He drew his bridle in the shade 
Of the apple-trees to greet the maid." — Wliittier. 
I walked in the morning, a morning in June, 
To breathe the fresh air, and with nature commune. 
I saw the bright star which had ushered the day 
In the orient light slowly fading away. — C. 

2. Heroic Couplets (Pentameters.) 

" Know then thyself ; presume not God to scan ; 
The proper study of mankind is man. 

Placed on this isthmus of a middle state, 
A being darkly wise and rudely great. 
With too much knowledge for the skeptic's side. 
With too much weakness for the stoic's pride, 
He hangs between, in doubt to act or rest, 
In doubts to deem himself a god or beast." — Pope. 
Note. These are sometimes called Riding Rhymes because they 
are used in the Canterbury Tales, which are represented as told by a 
party riding to Canterbury. 

3. Hexameters (Iambic). 

" Then from her burnished gate the goodly glittering East 
Gilds every top, which late the humorous Night 
Bespangled had with pearl, to please the Morning's sight. 

On this the mirthful quires, with their clear open throats. 

Unto the joyful morn so strain their warbling notes 

That hills and valleys ring, and even the echoing air 
Seems all composed of sounds about them everywhere."— 

Drayton. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG TJA GE. 233 

Wote. These are called Alexandriae Verses from having been for- 
merly used in poems celebrating the exploits of Alexander the Great. 
They are also called French Heroics. 

4. Heptameters (Iambic). 

" She sits beneath the elder shade in that long mortal swoon ; 

And piteously on her wan cheek looks down the gentle moon ; 

And when her senses are restored, whom sees she at her side 

But her, believed in childhood to have wandered oflf and died." — 

Wilson. 

The Service Meter, or Common Meter of the Versions of 

the Psalms, is Iambic Heptameter ; but the length of these verses 

makes it more convenient usually to divide them, and write each 

as if it consisted of two verses, — one of four, and the other of 

three feet. 

" I choose the path of heavenly truth, 

And glory in my choice ; 

Not all the riches of the earth 

Could make me so rejoice." 

Another Ehyme is frequently used, when the verses are writ- 
ten in this manner, making alternate Ehymes. 

" When midnight darkness veils the skies, 

I call thy words to mind ; 
My thoughts in warm devotion rise, 
And sweet acceptance find." 

The Short Meter Stanza consists of a Hexameter and a 
Heptameter (Iambic), which are usually divided in writing. 
" While all his wondrous works through his vast kingdom show 
Their Maker's glory, thou, my soul, shalt sing his praises too." 
*' Thither the tribes repair, 

Where all are wont to meet, 
And, joyful in the house of prayer. 
Bend at the mercy seat.'' 

Terminal Amphibrach. In Iambic Heptameters sometimes 
an Amphibrach is used instead of the last Iambus. 

" Had Ellen lost her mirth 1 Oh no ! But she was seldom cheerful ; 
And Edward looked as if he thought that Ellen's mirth was fearful." 

5. Octometers. A Macron in the fifth place of the line. 

" Here about the beach I wandered, nourishing a youth sublime 
With the fairy tales of science, and the long result of time. 
When the centuries behind me like a fruitful land reposed, — 
When I clung to all the present for the promise that it closed." — 

Tennyson. 



234 A COMPLETE 8GIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 

The Long Meter is Iambic Octometer ; and, in writing, the 
Verses are almost always divided, — each one occupying two lines, 
— and usually an additional Rhyme is introduced. These 
Rhymes are sometimes alternate, and sometimes consecutive. 
" Faith sees the bright eternal doors unfold to make his children way j 
They shall be clothed with endless life, and shine in everlasting day." • 

" From sea to sea, through all the shores, 

He makes the noise of battle cease ; 
When from on high his thunder roars, 

He awes the trembUng world to peace." 

'* Blest are the souls that find a place 

Within the temple of thy grace ; 
There they behold thy gentler rays, 

And seek thy face, and learn thy praise." 
The Ballad Stanza is the same as the Common Meter ; and 
the long lines are usually divided in the same way. 

EXAMPLES. 

" Three times all in the dead of night a bell was heard to ring ; 
And shrieking at her window thrice the raven flapped his wing." 

Tickell. 
" Forbear, my son," the hermit cries, 

" To tempt the dangerous gloom ; 
For yonder faithless phantom flies 

To lure thee to thy doom." — Ooldsmith. 

m. Triplets. Three l^e stanzas are occasionally used, some- 
times all rhyming together, and sometimes not ; and the Verses 
vary in the number and kind of feet. 

EXAMPLES. 
1. Iambic Tetrameters. 

" Transfused through you, mountain friends, 
With mine your solemn spirit blends. 
And life no more hath separate ends. 

I read each misty mountain sign ; 

I know the voice of wave and pine ; 

And I am yours ; and ye are mine." — Whittier, 

" And thou, amidst thy sisterhood 
Forbearing long, yet standing fast 
Shalt win their grateful thanks at last, 

When North and South shall strive no more. 
And all their feuds and fears be lost 
In Freedom's holy Pentecost." — Id. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANO UAGE. 235 

2. Iambic Pentameters. 

" Strongest of men, they pierced the mountain boar. 

Ranged the wild deserts red with monster's gore, 

And from their hills the shaggy Centaurs tore." — Pope. 

3. Trochaic Tetrameters. 

To the Throne each soul compelling, 
Voice of trumpet, louder swelling, 
Sounds through sepulchre and dwelling. 

Death and nature stand demented, 

When the creature, unprevented. 

Is before the Judge presented. — C. 

" Fact and fancy, thought and theme, 

Word and work, begin to seem 

Like a half remembered dream." — Whittier. 

TV, Quatrains. Four line Stanzas are more common tban 
any others ; and the variety of them is very great. 

EXAMPLES. 
1.— Iambic Tetrameter. 

" He knew not if the brotherhood 

His homily had understood ; 

He only knew that to one ear 

The meaning of his words was clear." — Longfellow. 
" Strange trees and fruits above him hung ; 
Strange odors filled the sultry air ; 
Strange birds upon the branches swung ; 
Strange insect voices murmured there." — Whittier. 

2.— Trochaic Tetrameter. 

"Never errant knight of old, 
Lost in woodland or on wold, 
Such a winding path pursued 
Through the sylvan solitude." — Longfellow. 

3.— Iambic Heptameter. 

" Far as the eager eye can reach the crested billows rise. 
Till on the distant verge they seem to kiss the bending skies ; 
No sail, like sea-bird's wing, appears to speak of life to me 
Through all this livelong holy day, — this Sabbath on the Sea." — 

G. T. Day, 

4. Elegiac Verses are Heroics ui four line Stanzas, with al- 
ternate Rhymes. 

Example.—" The Curfew tolls,— the knell of parting day ;— 
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea \, 



236 A COMPLETE SCIEHTIFIG GRAMMAR 

The plowman homeward plods his weary way, 

And leaves the world to darkness and to me." — Gray. 

5.— Octosyllabics. 

" Now rings the woodland loud and long ; 

The distance takes a lovelier hue ; 

And, drowned in yonder living blue. 

The lark becomes a sightless song." — Tennyson. 

6.— Heroics and Alexandrine. 

" Rustling, the leaves are rudely hurried by ; 

Or in dark eddies whirled, while from on high 

The ruffian Winds, as if in giant mirth, 

Unseat the mountain pine, and headlong dash to earth." — 

Pickering. 

"V". — Quintettes. Five line Stanzas are somewhat rare ; but 
they are sometimes used with good effect. 

EXAMPLE. 
Trochaic Tetrameter. 

" I have known how sickness bends, 

I have known how sickness breaks, — 
How quick hopes have sudden ends, 

How the heart thinks, till it aches. 
Of the smile of buried friends." — Mrs. Browning. 

"VI. — Sestettes. — Six line Stanzas are very numerous, and of 
great variety. 

EXAMPLE. 
Heroics. 

" She holds the casket, but her simple hand 
Hath spilled its dearest jewel by the way ; 

She hath life's empty garment at command, 
But her own death lies covert in the prey ; 

As if a thief should steal a tainted vest ; 

Some dead man's spoil, and sicken of his pest." — Hood. 

VII. — Septettes. — Seven Hne Stanzas are many and various. 

The Fthyme Ptoyal, invented by Chaucer, consists of seven 
lines of Heroics, the last two rhyming successively, and the others 
alternating variously. 

EXAMPLE. 

" The soldier he delighteth, all in arms. 
To see his colors in the field displayed. 
And longs to see the issue of those harms 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA GE. 237 

That may reveal an enemy dismayed, 

A fort defeated, or a town betrayed ; 

And still to be in action day and night, 

But little thinks on God in all the fight." — Breton. 

"Viii. — Octaves. — Eight line Stanzas occur in great number 
and variety. 

EXAMPLES. 

1.— Dactylic Tetrameter, with Macron in the fourth place. 
" Joyfully, joyfully, onward I move, 
Bound for the land of bright spirits above. 
Angelic choristers sing, as I come, 
' Joyfully, joyfully, haste to thy home.' 
Soon, with my pilgrimage ended below. 
Home to the land of bright spirits I go. 
Pilgrim and stranger, no more shall I roam. 
Joyfully, joyf ally, resting at home." — Anon. 

2. The Ottava Rima, consisting of eight Heroic lines, the 
first six rhyming alternately, and the last two successively. 

" Morgante had a palace in his mode, 

Composed of branches, logs of wood, and earth, 

And stretched himself at ease in this abode. 

And shut himself at night within his berth. 

Orlando knocked, and knocked again, to goad 

The giant from his sleep ; and he came forth 

The door to open, like a crazy thing ; 

For a rough dream had shook him slumbering." — Byron. 

LX. — Nine Liine Stanzas are somewhat frequent. They ex- 
hibit much variety ; and some of them have been developed with 
great skill. 

The Spencerian Stanza, invented by Spencer, and much 
used, consists of two Heroic Quatrains, rhyming alternately, 
the last Une of the first rhyming with the first Hne of the 
second, and these followed by an Alexandrine rhyming with the 
eighth line. 

EXAMPLE. 

" A gentle Knight was pricking on the plain, 
Ycladd in mightie armes, and silver shielde 
Wherein old dints of deep woundes did remain, 
The cruel marks of many a bloody fielde ; 
Yet armes till that time did he never wield. 



238 ^ COMPLETE 8GIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 

His angry steede did chide his foaming bitt, 
As much disdayning to the curbe to yield. 
Full jolly Knight he seemed, and faire did sitt, 
As one for knightly giusts and fierce encounters fitt" — 

Spenser, 
X. — Ten Line Stanzas occur but seldom. 

Example. — " After the tempest— the lull of waves j 
After the battle — peaceful graves ; 
After the knell — the wedding bells ; 
Joyful greetings from sad farewells. 
After the bud — the radiant rose ; 
After our weeping — sweet repose ; 
After the burden — the blissful meed ; 
After the furrow — the waking seed ; 
After the flight — the downy nest ; 
Over the shadowy river — rest." — Anon. 

XI. — Eleven Line Stanzas are not often used. 

EXAMPLE. 

" Worthless are all such pilgrimages — very. 

If Palmers at the Holy Tomb contrive 

The human heats and rancor to revive 

That at the Sepulchre they ought to buiy. 

A sorry sight it is to rest the eye on 

To see a Christian creature graze at Sion ; 

Then homeward, of the saintly pasture full, 

Rush, bellowing, and breathing fire and smoke. 

At crippled Papistry to butt and poke, 

Exactly as a skittish Scottish bull 

Haunts an old woman in a scarlet cloak." — Hood, 

Xn. — Twelve Line Stanzas are often used by a few Poets. 

iExample. — " Come let us set our careful breasts, 
Like Philomel, against the thorn 
To aggravate the inward grief 
That makes her accents so forlorn. 
The world has many cruel points 
Whereby our bosoms have been torn ; 
And there are dainty themes of grief 
In sadness to outlast the morn, — 
True honor's dearth, affection's death. 
Neglectful pride and cankering scorn. 
With all the piteous tales that tears 
Have watered since the world was born." — Id. 



OF THE EI^GLISH LANG UAGE. 239 

Xm. — Thirteen Line Stanzas are seldom used. 

EXAMPLE. 

" But hark ! those shouts ! that sudden din 

Of little hearts that laugh within. 

take him where the youngsters play ; 

And he will grow as young as they ! 

They come ! they come ! each blue-eyed sport, 

The Twelfth-Night King and all his court. 

'Tis Mirth fresh crowned with mistletoe ! 

Music with her merry fiddles, 

Joy " on light fantastic toe," — 

Wit with all his jests and riddles, 

Singing and dancing as they go ; 

And Love, young Love, among the rest, 

A welcome, nor unbidden, guest." — Id. 

XIV. — ^Fourteen Line Stanzas are common, especially the 
Sonnet, which is very elaborate. It consists of Heroics, and has 
two parts called the Octave and Sestette. The Octave consists of 
two Quatrains, in each of which the first line rhymes with the 
fourth, and the second with the third. Also the fourth rhymes 
with the fifth. The Sestette is rhymed variously. 

EXAMPLE. 

" Each creature holds an insular point in space ; 

Yet what man stirs a finger, breathes a sound. 

But all the multitudinous beings round 

In all the countless worlds, with time and place 

For their conditions, down to the central base, 

Thrill, haply, in vibration, and rebound, — 

Life answering life across the vast profound 

In full antiphony, by a common grace 1 

I think this sudden joy aunce, which illumes 

A child's mouth sleeping, unaware may run 

From some soul newly loosened from earth's tombs. 

I think this passionate sigh, which half begun 

I stifle back, may reach and stir the plumes 

Of God's caim angel standing in the sun."— Jtfrs. Browning. 

"Variations of the Sonnet are common, in which the 
Rhymes of the Octave alternate variously. The so called Sonnets 
of Shakespeare are so inartistic as scarcely to deserve the name. 

A Strophe is a system of from two to thirty verses, forming 
one of the irregular divisions of a Poem. (See CoUins's Ode on 
the Passions, &c. ) 



210 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAU 

IsTote. The Divisions of a Poem are called irregular wlien 
they differ from each other in the number, length, or combina- 
tion of their verses, or when the number of verses in each ex- 
ceeds fourteen. 

A Stanza or Strophe is not a mere aggregation of verses, 
but it is a group in which the verses are so bound together by the 
interlacing of the Bhymes, or otherwise, as to form a system by 
itself. 

SUB-CLASSES OF STANZAS.-2. 

1 . A HomogeneOTlS Stanza is one having the same num- 
ber of Feet in each of its verses. 

2. A Heterogeneous Stanza is one not having the same 
number of Feet in each of its verses. 

0RDERS.-4. 

1 . A Continuous Rhymed Stanza is one whose verses all 
rhyme together. (See "The rain," p. 309.) 

2. A Consecutive Rhymed Stanza is one in which the 
verses of each rhyming pair or set are not separated by interven- 
ing verses. 

3. An Alternate Rhymed Stanza is one in which the 

verses of each rhyming pair are separated by one intervening 
verse. 

4. A Remote Rhymed Stanza is one in which the verses 
of some of its rhyming pairs are separated by two or more inter- 
vening verses. 

Varieties of the Stanza. By combining verses differing in 
length and construction, and variously distributing the Rhymes, 
an almost infinite variety of Stanzas has been developed ; and the 
number is continually increasing. 

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 

1, " Yellow leaves, how fast they flutter, — woodland hollows thickly 

strewing, 
Where the wan October sunbeams scantly in the midday win. 
While the dim gray clouds are drifting, and in saddened hues im- 
buing 

All without and all within," — Jean Ingelow. 

2. "Within deep dungeons heavenly light comes flaming. 

When faith kneels there to pray ; 
And voiceless solitudes hear heaven proclaiming 
Redemption on its wny." — G. T Day. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 241 

3. " Brighter waters sparkled never 

In that magic well 
Of whose gift of life forever 

Ancient legends tell, — 
In the lonely desert wasted, 
And by mortal lip untasted." — TVhiftier. 

4. " Last night I wasted hateful hours 
Below the city's eastern towers ; 

I thirsted for the brooks, the showers ; 

I rolled among the tender flowers ; 
I crushed them on my breast, my mouth ; 
I looked athwart the burning drouth 
Of that long desert to the south." — Tennyson, 

5. *' The day had sunk in dim showers, 

But midnight now, with luster meek, 
Illumined all the pale flowers. 

Like hope that lights a mourner's cheek. 
I said, while 
The moon's smile 
Played o'er a stream in dimpling bliss, 
' The moon looks 
On many brooks ; 
The brook can see no moon but this,' 
And thus, I thought, our fortunes run ; 
For many a lover looks to thee, 
While, oh! I feel there is but one. 
One Mary in the world for me ! " — Moore. 

6. "To crown the whole with triple queue, 

Another such there's not in town, 

Twitching his restless nose askew. 

Behold tremendous Harry Brough- 

-am, Law Professor at the U- 

niversity we've Got in town — 

Diversity we've Got in town." — Barhavn. 

7. Ah me I 

Am I the swain 

That late from sorrow free 

Did all the cares on earth disdain % 

And still untouched, as at some safer games, 

Played with the burning coals of love and beauty's flames 1 

Was't I could dive and sound each passions secret depth at will, 

And from those huge o'erwhelmings rise by help of reason still 1 



242 



A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 



And am I now, heavens ! for trying this in vain. 

So sunk that I shall never rise again ? 

Then let despair set sorrow's string 

For strains that doleful be. 

And I will sing 

Ahme!"— FiYAen 

" What sounds were heard 1 
What scenes appeared 
O'er all the dreary coasts 1 

Dreadful gleams, 

Dismal screams, — 

Fires that glow. 

Shrieks of woe, — 

Sullen moans. 

Hollow groans, — 
And cries of tortured ghosts ! 



9. 1. 



" Light 
Fades ; 
Night 
Shades 
Appalling 
Are falling. 



From 

The hill 

Come 

So still 

The moon and star 

And nisht unbar. 



Pope. 

Sleep's 

Cover 

Creeps 

Over 

Loved nature's 

Calm features.' 



10. " Hearts of love and souls of daring, in the world's high field of 

action, 
Te who cherish God's commandments, bending not to rank or faction, — 
Ye whose life in slothful pleasure never sinks, nor idly stagnates, 
Ye who wield the scales of justice, weighing peasant men with mag- 
nates, 
Lo ! the voice of benediction falls upon you from on high ; 
Ye are chosen ; ye are missioned ; ye are watched by Heaven's eye." — 

Duganne. 

11. " The station clock proclaims the close of day ; 
The hard worked clerks drop gladly ofi^to tea; 
The last train starts upon its dangerous way. 

And leaves the place to darkness and to me."— Punch. 

12. " Not a sou had he got ; — not a guinea or note ; 
And he looked confoundedly flurried, 

As he bolted away without paying his shot ; 
And the landlady after him hurried." — Barham. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 243 



CHAPTER V.-POEMS. 
A Poem is a piece of metrical composition. 

CLASSES.-3. 

1 . A Li3rric Poem is one designed (or suitable) for singing. 

2. A Dramatic Poem is one designed for theatrical speak- 
ing. 

3. A Lectio Poem is one designed simply for reading. 

CLASS I-LYmC POEMS. 
GENERA.-2. 

1 . A Sacred Poem is one designed for religious use. 

2. A Secular Poem is one designed for uses not religious. 

GENUS l.-SACRED POEMS. 
SPECIES.-2. 

1. A Psalm is one of the sacred poems contained in the 
Bible. 

2. A Il3rmn is a sacred poem not contained in the Bible. 

GENUS 2.-SECULAR POEMS. 
SPECIES.-4. 

1. A Song is a short lyric poem, various in form and subject. 

2. A Ballad is a long narrative song in the Ballad Meter. 

3. An Ode is a long, elaborate, and dignified lyric, sometimes 
not intended to be sung. 

4. Ar> Elegy is a funeral or mournful song. 

CLASS II-DRAMATIC POEMS. 
GENERA.-3. 

1 . A Tragedy is a Dignified Dramatic Poem, usually having 
a fatal issue. 

2. A Comedy is a light and amusing Dramatic Poem. 

3. A Mask is an irregular, extravagant Drama, in tragic 
form, introducing extra-human characters. 

GENUS 2.-C0MEDIES. 
SPECIES.-2. 

1 . A Regalar Comedy is one in regular form, with re- 
spectable characters and natural incidents. 

2. A Farce is a low, irregular. Comedy in which the charac- 
ters and incidents are ridiculous. 



244 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

CLASS III -LECTIC POEMS. 
0RDERS.-2. 

1 . A Didactic Poem is one designed to aflford instruction, 

2. An Aesthetic Poem is one designed merely to afford 
pleasure. 

ORDER l.-DIDACTIC POEMS. 
GENERA.-5. 
1 . A Historic Poem is one narrating historical events. 

3. An Argumentative Poem is one devoted to argument, 
or reasoning. 

3. A Descriptive Poem is one describing persons, places, 
or things. 

4. A Hortatory Poem is one devoted to exhortation, or 
persuasion. 

5. A Satiric Poem is one severely criticising, in rough lan- 
guage, certain persons, characters, or customs. 

GENUS l.-HISTORIC POEMS. 
SPECIES.-3. 

1 . An Epic Poem is one naiTating, in elevated style, the 
achievements (real or imaginary) of distinguished persons. 

2. A Chronicle is a plain narrative of actual events. 

3. An Anecdote is a brief, and frequently humorous, narra- 
tive. 

ORDER 2.-AESTHETIC POEMS. 
SPECIES.-IO. 

1 . A R(Omance is a iBlctitious, sometimes extravagant, biog- 
raphy or love story. 

2. A Pastoral Poem is one pertaining to rural affairs, espe- 
cially to the affairs of shepherds. 

3. An Idyl is a short, but elevated and artistic, pastoral. 

4. A Fable is a fictitious and improbable narrative, designed 
for amusement and instruction. 

6. An Epistle is a familiar communication or letter. 

6. A Parody is a poem in which some of the words have 
been so changed as to adapt it to a purpose different from the 
original one. 

7. A Burlesque is a poem in which there is a ludicrous con- 
trast between the style and the subject. 

8. A Macaronic Poem is one in which words from two or 
more different languages are used promiscuously. 



OF THE EN0LI8R LANG UA OE. 245 

9. Task Poetry is that in which the sense is made subservi- 
ent to the form, as in Acrostics, Echos, Puzzles, &c. 

1 0. An Epigram is a short pungent expression, usually of 
censure or ri(iicule. 

EXAMPLE OF AN EPIGRAM. 

" Sir, I admit your general rule 
That every poet is a fool ; 
But you yourself may serve to show it 
That every fool is not a poet." — Pope. 



CHAPTER VI.-POETIC LICENSE. 

Poetic License is the privilege of using, in poetical compo- 
sition, on account of its difficulty, many modes of expression 
which are in some respects objectionable. 

EXPEDIENTS.-IO. 

1. Contraction of Words, as " 'gan " for " began " ; " e'er " 
for '* ever " ; &c. 

2. Combination of "Words, as "th' immense" for "the 
immense " ; &c. 

3. Antiquated Pronunciation, as "smiled " for " smiled" ; 
&c. 

4. Antiquated Inflection, as " writeth " for "writes " ; &c. 

5. Antiquated Words and Phrases, " ' I am ' quod he " ; 
&c. 

6. Constant Use of Ellipsis and other Khetorical Figures, 
as " He knew to sing and build the lofty rhyme " ; &c. 

7. Changing the Accent of words, as " useless " for " use- 
less " ; &c. 

8. Imperfect Rhymes, as " shade " and " had " ; &c. 

9. Imperfect Feet, as a Spondee or Pyrrhic in Iambic 
Verse ; &c. 

10. Imperfect Stanzas (i. e. such as close in the midst of a 
Sentence, making a Caesura of the Sentence). 

ABUSES OF POETIC LICENSE. 

1 . Too frequent resort to the above expedients. 

2. Indiscriminate Use, in the same Composition, of the 
forms "thou" and " you " to designate the. same individual. 



246 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

3. Confounding the Tenses of the Verb or Copula in tlie 
same Sentence. 

5. Corrupting "Words by omission or insertion of sounds, 
as when '*mama" is made to rhyme with "unbar"; "saw" 
with "war" ; &c. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. " The ladies first 

*Gan murmur, as became the softer sex." — Cowper, 

" O'er hills, o^er dales, o'er crags, o'er rocks they go." — Pope, 

" I ne'er the paths of learning tried." — Gai/. 

2. " For 'twas the self same power divine." — Cowper. 
"Than when employed f accommodate the fair." — Id. 
" Th' eternal snows appear already past." — Pope. 

3. " Lo the poor Indian whose untutored mind 

Sees God in clouds, or hears him in the wind. — Id. 
" His bloodless cheek is seemed and hard ; 
Unshorn his gray neglected heard. — Whittier. 
" An 'twere not for thy hoary beard. 
Such hand as Marmion's had not spared 
To cleave the Douglas's head." — Scott. 

4. " Go when the morning shineth ; 

Go when the eve declineth." — Edin. Lit. Rev. 
" That eagerly help him for to fight." — Old Romance. 
" With points of blastborne hail their heated eyne! 
So their wan limbs no more might come between." — Tennyson. 

5. " Withouteii that would come an heavier bale." — Thomson. 

" Not one eftsoons in view was to be found." — Id. 
" Of clerks good plenty here you mote espy." — Id. 
" A train band Captain eke was he." — Cowper. 

6. " Nor blasted were their wedded days with strife." — Beatie. 

" The windy summit, wild and high, 
Roughly rushing on the sky." — Dyer. 
" My heart is a sieve where some scattered affections," &c. — Moore, 

7. " Now Christ thee save thou proud porter." — Old Ballad. 

" Myself right surely know als6 that 'tis my doom to perish." — 

Newman. 
"Without retinue to that friendly shore." — Pope. 
" And humble all his airs of insolence." — Id. 

8. " His dreadful journey to the realms beneath 
To seek Tiresias in the vales of death." — Id. 
" And bids Aurora with her golden wheels 
Flame from the ocean o'er the eastern hills." — Id. 
*' Alone and unattended let me try 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 247 

If yet I share the old man's memory." — Id. 
" Far from the town, an unfrequented bay 
Relieved our wearied vessel from the sea." — Id. 
" If this raise anger in the stranger's thought, 
The pain of anger punishes the fault." — Id. 
" To fame I sent him to acquire renown ; 
To other regions is his virtue known." — Id. 
"Behold the gloomy grot whose cool recess 
Delights the Nereides of the neighboring seas." — Id. 
9. " Warms in the sun ; refresh | es in | the breeze ; 

Glows in the stars ; and bios | soms in J the trees," — Id. 

" Not a drum ] was heard, [ nor a fu | neral note 

As his corse ] to the rampart | we hurried ; — 

Not a sol 1 dier discharged J his fare j well shot 

O'er the grave j where our hero | we buried." — Wolfe. 

10. " So word by word, and line by line. 

The dead man touched me from the past ; 
And all at once it seemed at last 
His living soul was flashed on mine ; 

And mine in his was wound, and whirled 

About empyreal heights of thought, 

And came on that which is, and caught 
The deep pulsations of the world." — Tennyson. 

11. " If thou man, a stranger art at home, 
Then know thyself, — the human mind survey; 
The use, the pleasure, will the toil repay. 
Nor study only; practise what you know ; 

Your life, your knowledge, to mankind you owe." — 

Grainger. 

12. " Is it for thee the linnet pours his throat 1 
Loves of his own and raptures swell the note. 
The bounding steed you pompously bestride 
Shares with his lord the pleasure and the pride. 

Is thine alone the seed that strews the plain ? " — Pope, 

13. " And when lord Marmion reached his band, 
He halts, and turns with clinched hand. 
And shout of loud defiance pours, 

And shook his gauntlet at the towers." — Scott. 

" Thus while he spoke, the queen of heaven, enraged. 
And queen of war, in close consult engaged ; 
Apart they sit, their deep designs employ. 
And meditate the future woes of Troy." — Pope. 



248 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC QBAMMAB 

14, ** Victory soon shall crown our banner ; 

Soon the conflict will be o'er ; 
Then the nation's loud hosannah 

Shall resound from shore to shore." — Gridley. 



CHAPTER VII.-POETIC ANALYSIS. 

Poetic Analysis is to a Poem what ordinary Analysis (in- 
cluding Parsing) is to a Sentence. 

Process. In Poetical Analysis one should class 1st, The 
Poem ; 2nd, the Stanzas or Strophes ; and 3d, the Verses. 

Additional "Work. After the Poetic Analysis one should 
Analyze the Sentences, and Parse the Words. 

" Philological Method." Besides the preceding work, one 
should, when possible, study the literary History of the Composi- 
tion, and the Biography of its Author ; — also the history of his 
time and country ; and he should gather up every accessible fact 
in relation to every person, place, or thing, mentioned or alluded 
to in the Composition. 

EXAMPLE. 

Byron's Waterloo, p. 295 is a piece of Metrical composition, and 
hence is a Poem. It is Lectic, Didactic, Historic, an Anecdote. 

It is divided into Stanzas, which are each of Nine Lines, Heteroge- 
neous, composed of two Alternately Rhymed Quatrains, in which the 
first line of the second rhymes with the last line of the first, together 
with a ninth line rhyming with the eighth. 

The Verses, except the ninth of each Stanza, are Iambic, Mixed, 
Pentameters (i. e. Heroics), Rhymed. The ninth Verse is Iambic, Mixed^ 
Hexameter (i. e. Alexandrine) ; and hence the Stanzas are Spence- 
rian. 

EXEEGISES. 

1. " High on a throne of royal state, which far 
Outshone the wealth of Ormus or of Ind, 

' Or where the gorgeous East, with richest hand, 
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold, 
Satan exalted sat, — by merit raised 
To that bad eminence." — Milton. 

2. " Fair laughs the morn, and soft the zephyr blows, 
While, proudly rising o'er the azure realm, 

In gallant trim the gilded vessel goes, — 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UA GE. 249 

Youth on the prow, and Pleasure at the helm, — 

Regardless of the sweeping whirlwind's sway. 

That, hushed in grim repose, expects his evening prey." — Gray. 

3. " The sportive Autumn claimed by rights 

An Archer for her lover ; 
And even in Winter's dark cold nights 
A charm he could discover." — Campbell. 

4. " When, bound to some bay 
In the billowy ocean. 

O'er sea rolling surges 
The sailors are steering, 
God weighs on his waters 
Their wandering bark, 
And wafts them with winds 
On their watery way." — Anon. 

5. " The rolling year 

Is full of Thee. Forth in the pleasing Spring 
Thy beauty walks, thy tenderness and love. 
Wide flush the fields ; — the softening air is balm ; — 
Echo the mountains round ; — the forest smiles ; — 
And every sense, and every heart is joy." — Thomson. 

6. " Could love forever 
Run like a river, 
And Time's endeavor 

Be tried in vain, 
No other pleasure 
With this could measure, 
• And, like a treasure, 

We'd hug the chain." — Byron. 

7. " Then out spake brave Horatius, the captain of the gate ; 
' To every man upon this earth death cometh soon or late ; 
And how can man die better than facing fearful odds 

For the ashes of his fathers, and the temples of his gods ? ' " — 

Macaulay, 

8. "Child of the country, free as air 
Art thou, and as the sunshine fair. 
Born, like the lily, where the dew 
Lies odorous when the day is new, — 
Fed mid the May-flowers, like the bee,— 
Nursed to sweet music on the knee, — 
Lulled in the breast to that glad tune 
Which winds make 'mong thej^oods of June, — 



250 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

I sing of thee. 'Tis sweet to sing 

Of such a fair and gladsome Ihing."'— Cunningham. 

9. "Day-stars, that ope your eyes with morn to twinkle, 
From rainbow galaxies of earth's creation 
And dew-drops o'er her lovely altars sprinkle 

As a libation." — Horace Smith.. 

10. " Comrades, leave me here a little, while as yet 'tis early morn ; 
Leave me here ; and when you want me, sound upon the bugle 

horn. 
'Tis the place ; and all around it, as of old, the curlews call. 
Dreary gleams about the moorland, flying over Locksley Hall, — 
Locksley Hall, that in the distance overlooks the sandy tracts, 
And the hollow ocean-ridges roaring into cataracts." — Tennyson. 

11. "If they rob us of name and pursue us with beagles, 
Give their roof to the flame and their flesh to the eagles. 
While there's leaves in the forest and foam on the river, 
McGregor, despite them, shall flourish forever." — Scott. 

12. " A conquest how hard and how glorious I 

Though fate had fast bound her 
With Styx nine times round her. 
Yet music and love were victorious ! " — Pope. 

13. " Ye shepherds so cheerful and gay. 

Whose flocks never carelessly roam. 
Should Corydon's happen to stray, 
Oh call the poor wanderers home." — Shenstone. 

14. " Thanks, my lord, for your venison, for finer or fatter 
Ne'er ranged in the forest nor smoked on the platter. 
The flesh was a picture for painters to study, 

The fat was so white and the lean was so ruddy. 

Though my stomach was sharp, I could scarce help regretting 

To spoil such a delicate picture by eating." — Goldsmith. 

15. " Come as the winds come, when 

Forests are rended ; 
Come as the waves come, when 

Navies are stranded. 
Faster come ; faster come ; 

Faster and faster ; — 
Chief, vassal, page, and groom, 

Tenant and master." — Scott. 



OF TEE ENGLISH LANQ UAGE. 251 

16. " This is the forest primeval ; but where are the hearts that be- 

neath it 
Leapt like the roe, when it hears in the woodland the voice of the 

huntsman 7 
Where is the thatch-roofed village, the home of Acadian farmers 1 
Men whose lives glided on like rivers that water the woodlands. 
Darkened by shadows of earth, but reflecting an image of 

Heaven 1 " — Longfellow. 

17. " At the close of day, when the hamlet is still. 

And mortals the sweets of forgetfulness prove. 
When nought but the torrent is heard on the hill, 

And nought but the nightingale's song in the grove, — 
'Twas thus, by the cave of the mountain afar, 

While his harp rung symphonious, a hermit began. 
No more with himself or with nature at war, 

He thought as a sage, though he felt as a man." — Beatie. 

18. " Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and 

weary. 
Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore, — 
While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping 
As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber-door. 
* 'Tis some visitor,' I muttered, ' tapping at my chamber-door ; — 

Only this, and nothing more,* " — Poe. 

19. " Speak gently of the erring ; — oh ! do not thou forget, 
However darkly stained by sin, he is thy brother yet ; — 
Heir of the self-same heritage, — child of the self-same God, — 
He hath but stumbled in the path thou hast in weakness trod." — 

F. G. Lee. 

20. " Oh ! a dainty plant is the Ivy green 

That creepeth o'er ruins old ! 
Of right choice food are his meals, I ween. 

In his cell so lone and cold. 
The walls must be crumbled, the stones decayed. 

To pleasure his dainty whim ; 
And the mold'ring dust that years have made 

Is a merry meal for him. 
Creeping where no life is seen, 
A rare old plant is the Ivy green." — Dickens. 



252 A COMPLETE SGIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 

21. " Hear the sledges with the bells, — 

Silver bells, 
What a world of merriment their melody foretells J 
How they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle, 

In the icy air of night, 
While the stars, that over sprinkle 
All the heavens, seem to twinkle 

With a crystalline delight, — 
Keeping time, time, time, 
In a sort of Runic rhyme 
To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells 
From the bells, bells, bells, bells, 
Bells, bells, bells, — 
From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells ! " — Po6, 

8's and 7's. 

22. " Sweet the moments, rich in blessing. 
Which before the cross I spend, — 
Life and health and peace possessing, 

From the sinner's dying Friend." — Robinson, 

7's. 

23. " Praise the Lord, for he is kind ; 
Praise him with a joyful mind ; 
For his mercies shall endure, — 
Ever faithful, ever sure." 

8's, 7's, and 4. 

24. " See, from Zion's sacred mountain, 

Streams of living water flow ! 
God has opened there a fountain 
That supplies the plains below. 

They are blessed 
Who its sovereign virtues know." — Kelly. 

H. M. 

25. *' How pleasing is the voice 

Of God, our heavenly King, 
Who bids the frosts retire. 
And wakes the lovely spring ! 
Bright suns arise ; 
The mild wind blows ; 
And beauty glows 
Through earth and skies. " — Dwight. 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 253 

8's. 

26. " The winter is over and gone ; 

The thrush whistles sweet on the spray ; 
The turtle breathes forth her soft moan ; 
The lark mounts and warbles away." — Hawes. 

L. P. M. 

27. " The Lord hath eyes to give the blind ; 
The Lord supports the sinking mind ; 

He sends the laboring conscience peace ; 
He helps the stranger in distress, — 
The widow and the fatherless — 

And grants the prisoner sweet release." — Anon. 

II'S. 

28. "I would not live alway ; I ask not to stay 
Where storm after storm rises o'er the dark way. 

The few lurid mornings that dawn on us here 
Are enough for life's woes, — full enough for its cheer." — 

Muhlenberg 

12's and ll's. 

29. " Thou art gone to the grave ; but we will not deplore thee. 
Though sorrows and darkness encompass the tomb ; 

The Savior has passed through its portals before thee ; 
And the lamp of his love is thy guide through the gloom.' — 

Heber, 

12's. 

30. " The voice of free grace cries ' Escape to the mountain ; 
For Adam's lost race Christ hath opened a fountain. 
For sin and uncleanness and every transgression 

His blood flows most freely in streams of salvation.' " — 

Whitejield, 

ll's. 

31. " Daughter of Zion, awake from thy sadness ; — 
Awake, for thy foes shall oppress thee no more. 
Bright o'er thy hills dawns the daystar of gladness ; 
Arise, for the night of thy sorrow is o'er." — Anon, 

ll's and lO's. 

32. " Brightest and best of the sons of the morning, 

Dawn on our darkness ; and lend us thine aid ; 
Star of the east, the horizon adorning, 

Guide where our infant Redeemer is laid." — Id. 



254 A COMPLETE SGIENTIFIG GRAMMAR 

ll's and 8's. 

83. " Be joyful in God, all ye lands of the earth ; 
Oh ! serve him with gladness and fear. 
Exult in his presence with music and mirth ; 
With love and devotion draw near. " — Id. 

7's and 6's. 

34. " As flows the rapid river, 

With channel broad and free, 
Its waters rippling ever, 
And hasting to the sea, — 
, So life is onward flowing. 

And days of offered peace ; 
And man is swiftly going 

Where calls of mercy cease." — S. F. Smith. 



APPENDIX. 



CHAPTER I-COMPOSITION. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Composition is the writing of original Continued Discourse. 

This properly belongs to the department of Rhetoric ; but students 
should have much practice and training in the art of Composition 
before they are old enough, or sufficiently advanced in other branches, 
to study Rhetoric as a Science. 

This exercise should be commenced as soon as the pupil can write, 
and continued as long as he attends school. 

The lessons should be regular, and as frequent as circumstances 
will permit, — daily, if possible ; otherwise, semiweekly, or weekly, 
or bi-weekly ; but never more seldom. 

Habits of neatness, order, and exactness should be cultivated. 

Compositions should be written first with a pencil, either on a slate 
or paper ; and, after careful revision and correction by the writer, 
they should be copied with a pen, in the best possible style, upon 
good clean paper of the form and size prescribed by the teacher, — 
neatly folded, — with the title, date, and author's name on the out- 
side, according to the directions given. 

They should then be carefully examined by the teacher, or by more 
advanced students under his supervision, and, with the errors marked, 
should be returned to the writer for correction and rewriting in books 
kept for that purpose. 

When possible, regular Classes should be formed in Composition 
as well as in other studies ; and the Essays should generally be read 
before the school. 

Subjects should be assigned and explained by the teacher ; and the 
whole Class should write upon the same topic. 

Pupils should never be required to write upon a subject which 
they know nothing about. 

Abstract subjects should never be assigned to the younger Classes. 

The older and more experienced may be permitted to select subjects 
for themselves. 

(255) 



256 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR. 

When about to write upon any topic, a student should not begin 
by reading 2injthhig pertaining totliat subject ; but should first tliink 
about it, — form his plan, — and write as well as he can. Then he 
should read whatever he can find relating to the topic ; and after 
that he should revi&e and correct his production. Thus he wiU 
secure originality. 

Either in writing or in debate, one should never attempt to argue 
a question in the form of a Comparison, as "Which is the greater 
evil, Intemperance or Lying?", &c., since it is entirely impossible to 
construct a valid argument on either side of any such question. 

Compositions should not be very long. Usually one page of quarto 
Letter Paper is the most proper length for beginners. 

Sentences should generally be short ; and Essays should be prop- 
erly divided into Paragraphs. 

Writing should always be perfectly legible, and as beautiful as 
possible. 

Compositions should be criticised in respect to the following points : 
1. Penmanship ; 2. Spelling ; 3. Capitals ; 4. Punctuation ; 5. Para- 
graphing ; 6. Use of Words ; 7. Correctness of Syntax ; 8. Conden- 
sation of Expression ; 9. Amplification of Thought ; 10. Accuracy of 
Statement ; 11. Conclusiveness of Reasoning ; 12. Sufficiency of 
Effort. 

For different Classes of Students the following courses of Exercises 
are proposed. 

PART I.-AN ELEMENTARY COURSE. 

In this, the attention should be directed mainly to Penmanship, 
Spelling, Capitals, and Neatness. 

1. Copying. — At first several Exercises may profitably be devoted 
to copying paragraphs from some accurately printed modern book. 
If not done correctly at the first trial, the work should be done over 
again until it is correct. The Rules for Spelling, p. 43, should be 
studied. 

2. Ijists of Names. — As a second step let the student write lists 
of names of Persons, Places, Animals, Trees, Plants, Minerals, Uten- 
sils, Articles of Dress, Furniture, Books, &c. 

The Rules for Capitals, p. 34, should be studied. 

3. Names of Parts. — Let the names of the parts of a House, 
Carriage, Book, Tree, Ship, Locomotive, Fort, Clock, Plow, Loom, 
Piano, Trunk, &c., be written. 

EXAMPLE.— A Stalk of Corn. 
The parts of a Stalk of Corn are the stem, root, rootlets, leaves, 
tassel, flowers, pollen, ear, husk, silk, kernels, cob, pith, woody 
fibres, vascular tissue, cellular tissue, chlorophyl, &c. 



APPENDIX.— COMPOSITION. 257 

4. Qualities of Things. — Let the student enumerate the quali 
ties of Iron, Lead, Copper, Gold, Silver, Mercury, Wood, Glass, 
Stone, Brick, Claj, Earth, Water, Ice, Snow, Wool, Cotton, Flax, 
Hemp, Flour, Meal, Salt, Alcohol, Tobacco, Sugar, Paper, Leather, 
Coal, Bone, Ivory, Marble, &c. 

EXA:MPLE.— Wax. 

Wax is useful, beautiful, fragrant, common, cheap, plenty, fusible, 
pliable, combustible, convenient, opaque, &c. 

5. Uses. — Enumerate the uses of the things mentioned in I^'os. 
Three and Four, and of other things. 

EXAJklPLE.— Coal Tar. 
Coal Tar is used for covering walks, — ^making roofing, — ^making 
shoe-blacking, — painting iron fences, chains, coal-hods, tools, &c., — 
preventing insects from going up the trees, — for manufacturing Light 
Carbon Oils for illuminating purposes, — Naptha for preparing Var- 
nishes, — Heavy Oils for lubricating Machinery, — Paraffine for making 
Candles, — Alcohols for various purposes, — Aniline Colors for Dye- 
stuffs and for the use of Artists, — Fruit Essences for Perfumery, — 
Carbolic Acid for medicinal, preservative, and disinfecting purposes, 
&c., &c, 

6. Writing from Memory. — Let the Teacher read to the 
Class a simple story or narrative from some book or paper not accessi- 
ble to the Class ; and let the students afterwards write what they can 
remember of it, not assisting one another. The Teacher may some- 
times give original narrations ; but usually the selections are better, 
because they can be more readily compared with the work of the 
pupils ; and the quality of that work more accurately estimated. 

7. Description of Things. — After a sufficient number of Exer- . 
cises from Memory, let the Class proceed to write simple descrip- 
tions of things which they have seen, as a Horse, Ox, Cow, Sheep, 
Dog, Goat, Cat, Goose, Squirrel, Fox, or other Animal, a Cart, 
Wagon, Car, Engine, Ax, Plane, Saw, Scythe, Mowing-Machine, 
Spinning- Wheel, Loom, Se wing-Machine, Cooking- Stove, Writing- 
Desk, Table, Bureau, Sofa, Chair, Lamp, Piano, Melodeon, Organ, 
Sleigh, Bridge, House, Barn, Garden, &c., &c. 

EXAMPLE.— A Sledge-Hammeh. 

A Sledge-Hammer is a large hammer, sometimes weighing ten or 
fifteen pounds, and generally used by a black-smith or a stone-mason. 
It has a long handle made of some strong tough wood, and is used 
by the stone-mason for breaking large rocks, or for driving wedges 
to raise up a rock. Sometimes he uses it in drilling holes in the 
rock which he intends to break with wedges, powder, or Nitro- 
glycerine. 



258 A COMPLETE SGIENTIFIG GRAMMAR. 

Tlie sledge sometimes has two round or square faces ; but in most 
cases it has one face onlj ; and opposite to that it has an edge some- 
what like that of an ax, but not so long or so sharp. 

The sledge used by the black- smith is generally not so heavy as that 
of the stone-mason, and is more neatly finished. 

Frequently the edge is blunted so as to make a kind of narrow face ; 
and sometimes it is turned in a different direction, so as to stand 
either oblique or at right angles to the direction of the edge of the 
mason's hammer. 

The black-smith uses his sledge in forging, welding, bending, or 
breaking large irons. 

The larger part of the sledge-hammer is commonly made of Iron ; 
but the face and the edge are made of Steel, which is harder, stronger, 
and more durable than Iron. 

8. Description of Places. — From the description of things it is 
easy to pass to the description of places. Let the pupil describe the 
House, Door-yard, Farm, District, Village, Street, or City where he 
lives, or where he has been, or any remarkable place that he has 
seen. 

9. Description of Events, or Narration. — This is a very easy 
and pleasant exercise. Let each member of the Class describe some 
occurrence which he has seen or participated in, as a Walk, — a Foot- 
race, — an Excursion for hunting, fishing, gathering Botanical, Min- 
eralogical, or Geological Specimens, — a Sleigh-ride, a Sail upon the 
water, — a Visit to a friend in the Country, or in the the City, — fall- 
ing from a horse, going a skating, — going to market, — visiting a 
School, — going to Church, — a thunder shower, — an Aurora Borealis, 
— a husking party, — an apple paring, — a log-rolling, — the raising 
of a building, — the burning of a building, — apic-nic, — a celebration, — 
a snow storm, — a Lecture, — a Concert, — ^an Exhibition, — a County 
Fair, — a Church Fair, &c., &c. 

EXAMPLE. — Gatheking Chestnuts. 

It was late in the Fall, and the leaves, being killed by the frost 
and dried by the sun, were brown and rustling and rapidly falling 
from the trees, when I and my friend started for the woods in pur- 
suit of chestnuts. — The way was long ; and the hills we had to climb 
were steep ; and my friend was so large and heavy that I feared he 
would not hold out well on such an excursion. But I soon found 
that I had enough to do to keep up with that heavy, dumpy looking 
fellow ; and, by the time that we reached the chestnut trees, I was 
glad to stop a while and rest. 

After a little we began to look for chestnuts ; but although the 



APPENDIX.— COMPOSITION. 259 

burs were well opened and we could see an abundance of tliem 
some fifty or eighty feet above our heads, we could scarcely find 
one upon the ground. 

The little roguish Squirrels, which had carried off all the fallen 
chestnuts to their burrows or to the hollow trees where they were 
laying up their winter store, and which were darting about here and 
there, seemed to exult in our perplexity, and fairly to mock us with 
their chattering. 

But their triumph was of short duration ; for my fat friend soon 
showed them that he could climb trees as well as they ; and up he 
went into one of those big lofty trees and began to shake ; and " Oh ! 
what a fall was there, my countrymen ! " not of the fat fellow, as I 
almost expected, — nor of the squirrels, — but of the chestnuts. 

They rained, — they poured, — and soon the ground was covered ! — 
I began to pick them up ; and in a short time my friend came down 
to my assistance. — We filled our pockets, and succeeded in getting 
home in time for tea. 

10. Letters. — Almost every person has frequent occasions to 
write letters ; and the exercise ought to be so familiar as not to oc- 
casion the slightest inconvenience ; but many are, unfortunately, 
very much embarrassed when it is necessary for them to write, be- 
cause they have had neither instruction nor practice in the art of 
letter- writing. Not only are they embarrassed in the writing, but 
their performances often subject them to much ridicule and contempt, 
which might all be avoided by a little attention to this matter while 
at school. 

The style of letters should be varied according to circumstances ; 
but a few points should always be observed. 

1. Letters should be perfectly legible. 

2. It should be clearly evident where, when, hy whom, and to whom 
the letter is written. 

3. Business letters should be short and explicit. 

4. A letter asking a favor, or pertaining exclusively to the busi- 
ness of the writer, should contain a stamp to prepay the postage on 
the answer. 

5. All letters should be promptly answered, unless there are pe- 
culiar and strong reasons for not answering them. 

6. A letter to a relative or intimate friend should be less formal 
than one to a stranger, or mere acquaintance ; and in addressing a 
person of high rank or dignity one should be more precise and formal 
than in ordinary correspondence. 

7. The date should be written first, near the top of the page, and 
towards the right side. Next, the formal Address should be written 



260 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR. 

a little below, and beginning at the left side of the page. Then, 
just below the termination of the Address, the Gom'plimentary Ad- 
dress should begin. After this last, on the same line, or the next be- 
low, the body of the letter should begin. After the body of the 
letter, near the middle of a line, the Complimentary Closing should 
begin ; and below the end of that the Signature should be written. 

In a familiar letter to a friend, the Formal Address may be omitted. 

After the Formal Address the Point required is the Period ; but 
after the Complimentary Address, the Comma. 

If it is desired to be especially respectful, the letter should begin 
not much above the middle of the page ; a whole sheet of paper 
should be used ; and if the first page does not contain the whole, the 
remainder should go upon the tliird page, leaving the second blank. 

In ordinary correspondence a half sheet of paper may be used, un- 
less the communication is too long for two pages to contain it ; but 
never less than half a sheet. 

If the letter is in reply to one received, the reception of it should 
be acknowledged at the beginning. 

In writing the Address upon the Envelope, the title should stand 
at the left, just below the middle of the face, — the name should fol- 
low in the same line, — then below, at about the middle of the face 
lengthwise, the name of the Town should commence, — below that, 
and farther to the right, the name of the County should begin, — and 
below that, and still farther to the right, the name of the State. This 
last may be abbreviated, if it is long. 

If the letter is sent to a large City, the number and name of the 
Street should be given first after the name of the person. 

Let the Class write imaginary Letters to Parents, Brothers, Sisters, 
Friends, Business Men, Firms, Members of the Legislature, Members 
of Congress, Classmates, Teachers, &c. 

EXAMPLES. 

Flemington, Taylor Co., W. Va. 
January 15th, 1879. 

Ms. Thomas Sheldon & Co. 

Dear Sirs, — Tour favor of the 10th of this month was duly 
received ; and it will give me great pleasure to comply with your 
request. 

I think the business can be finished in a few days ; and I will 
promptly inform you of the result. 

Very truly Yours, 

James Anderson. 



APPENDIX.— COMPOSITION. 261 



Ms, Thomas Sheldon 6^ Co.^ 

Whitestowfij 

Oneida Co., 

jsr. Y. 



Habtford, CoiSTN., March Sth, 1879. 

My Deab Brother, — 

I received your kind letter of Feb. 20tli last week, 
and was extremely glad to learn that you arrived safely at the end of 
your journey, and found your family safe and well. 

We are well and prosperous, but have felt lonesome ever since you 
left us. I wish that you were not so far away but that we might en- 
joy your visits more frequently. — John has left us, since you went 
away, — having taken charge of a School in a neighboring town, 
where he seems to be enjoying himself and giving satisfaction. 
Henry is still pursuing his studies at the High School, and hopes to 
be ready to enter College next fall. — Business is becoming much more 
lively than it was when you left us ; and we think the prospect is 
good for the coming season. 

We were all much interested in the Lecture last evening, at Allen 
Hall, by Professor Tyndall, on the Subject of Light. His apparatus 
is splendid, and his treatment of his theme is m.ost masterly. I wish 
you could hear him. 

Your affectionate Brother, 

Alfred Bingham. 

500 Broadway, N. Y., Tuesday, April Sth, 1879. 
To THE Hon. A. I. Boreman, Senator of the U. 8. 

Dear Sir, — Please allow me to congratulate you upon the 
passage of the Law which you have recently advocated with so much 
zeal and ability, and which is destined, I have no doubt, to be of 
great utility to the Country. 

I assure you that I, with many others, have watched with great in- 



262 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAB. 

terest tlie progress of legislation in regard to this matter, and tliat 
we are peculiarly gratified at tliis final liappj result. 
I remain, Sir, with great respect. 

Yours very truly, 

^ Joseph Denham. 

PART II.-AN INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 

This Course is designed for those who have been through with 
Syntax, and have made corresponding progress in other studies. 

SECTION 1. 

Construct half a dozen original Sentences of each kind mentioned 
in the Analysis ; and punctuate them. 

Study the Chapter on Punctuation, beginning at p. 47, 

SECTION 2. 

Take the Sentences of the List beginning at p. 274, and subject 
them to all the Transformations of which they are susceptible ; viz. : 

1. Change the Sentences of each Order into the Equivalent Sen- 
tences of the other Order. 

2 Contract such as can be in any way contracted. 

3. Expand all contracted forms in every possible way. 

4. Transpose the Members and Elements in all possible ways. 

SECTION 3. 

Take the Poetical Selections in the Grammar, and in the Readers, 
and transform them into Prose. 

PART III.-A HIGHER COURSE. 

This Course is designed for those who have completed the Gram- 
mar, and made corresponding progress in other studies. 

SECTION 1.— Prose. 

Write Dissertations, Essays, and Orations. 

In order to produce an Essay take the following steps : 

1. Select a Theme, if .one is not assigned by the Teacher. 

It is comparatively unimportant what the Theme is, provided that 
one knows something about it, and works it up faithfully. 

2. Form a Plan, or outline of the Essay. 

An Essay or Discourse without a Plan is generally without sense 
or utility, — the mere raw material from which something valuable 
might, perhaps, be elaborated, but is not. 

3. Proceed to fill up the Plan, or write according to it. 

The Plan itself should not, generally, be mentioned or made promi- 
nent in the Essay. A guide board is useful to direct one in the right 



APPENBIX.— COMPOSITION. 263 

■way ; but it is not necessary or useful for liini to slioulder it, and 
carry it along with him. 

4. Acquire all the information possible in regard to the Theme ; 
and then revise, criticise, correct, and rewrite the Essay. 

PLANS. 

The Plan of an Essay or Discourse must depend, to a certain extent, 
upon the nature of the Theme ; but it usually depends to a greater 
extent upon the occasion, and the purpose and ability of the writer. 

The same Theme admits, usually, of a number of different plans ; 
and two different writers upon the same subject scarcely ever adopt 
exactly the same plan. 

A Theme may consist of a Word, a Phrase, or a Sentence. 

When the Theme is a Word, the writer has perfect freedom of 
choice in regard to the plan. If the Theme is a Phrase, he is some- 
what restricted ; and if it is a Sentence, he is still more restricted. 

A Theme consisting of a Word or Phrase is a General Theme ; — a 
Sentence forms a Particular Theme. 

In general, one should study brevity and condensation. 

Introductions, if used at all, should be very short, and apologies 
should be utterly discarded. 

Essays designed as School Exercises should not exceed three quarto 
pages of ordinary manuscript. 

EXAMPLES OF PLANS.— Genekal Themes. 

Theme, — The Sheep. 
First Plan. 

1. The Size and Appearance of the Sheep. 

2. The Habits. 3. The Utility. 4. The History. 5. The Enemies, 
6. The Varieties of the Sheep. 

Second Plan. 

1. The Scientific Name and Rank of the Sheep. 

2. The Time of its Domestication. 

3. Its Use among the Ancient Nations. 

4. Allusions to it in the Bible. 

5. Allusions to it in Classical Literature. 

6. Its Use for Religious Sacrifices. 

Third Plan. 

1. The Rank of the Sheep among Domestic Animals. 

2. The Industries depending upon the Sheep. 

3. Mutton as an Article of food. 

4. Wool as an Article of Commerce. 

5. Wool as a Material for Manufactures. 

6. Woolen Manufactories. 



264 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

Fourth Plan. 

1. Tlie Slieep as a Means of Civilization. 

2. Slieep raising as a Business. 

3. Slieep and Dogs. 

4. Climatic Distribution of Sheep^ 

5. Slieep Husbandry among the Nations. 

6. Tbe Future of Sheep Husbandry. 

Fifth Plan. 

1. The Comparative Value of the Sheep and Swine. 

2. The Conditions of Success in Sheep Husbandry. 

3. The Rank of Sheep Husbandry, compared with other Industries 

in the United States. 

4. The Effect of Tariff Laws upon Sheep Husbandry. 

5. Imported Sheep. 

6. Sheep at County Fairs. 

Sixth Plan. 

1. Sheep as a Rural Ornament. 

2. Sheep in Pastoral Poetry. 

3. Sheep in Epic Poetry. 

4. Sheep in Fable. 

5. The Sheep as a Religious Symbol. 

6. The Sheep as a Means of National Superiority. 

Seventh Plan. 

1. The Sheep as a Means of American Independence. 

2. Sheep raising in New England. 

3. Sheep raising in Texas. 

4. Sheep Husbandry in Scotland. 

5. Sheep Husbandry in Australia. 

6. Sheep Husbandry in South Africa. 

Eighth Plan. 

1. Large Sheep. 

2. Sheep without Wool. 

3. Syrian Sheep. 

4. Sheep in relation to the Fine Arts. 

5. The Geological Era of Sheep. 

6. The Connection of Sheep with Astronomy, 

Ninth Plan. 

1. Sheep and Goats. 

2. Fine and Coarse Wooled Sheep. 

3. Diseases of Sheep. 

4. The Colors of Sheep. 

5. The Food of Sheep. 

6. The Care of Sheep. 



APPEN'DIX.—GOMPOSITION, 265 

Tenth Plan. 

1. The kind of Country best adapted to Sheep. 

3. The Age of Sheep. 

3. The Relation of Sheep to Music. 

4. Sheep and Royalty. 

5. Sheep Husbandry in Palestine. 

6. Syrian Sheep and Goats in relation to Darwinism. 

These different plans are not by any means all that might be given ; 
but they may serve to illustrate the variety of treatment of which a 
common simple Theme is susceptible. 

Any one of these plans furnishes abundant material for an ordinary 
School Essay ; and in fact one of the Single Divisions of these plans 
is often sufficient not merely for a short Essay, but for a Volume, 
if fully developed. 

THE SECOND PLAN DEVELOPED. 
The Sheep. 

1. The Common Sheep belongs to that part of the Animal King- 
dom called Vertebrates, — to the First Grand Division, called Warm 
Blooded Animals, — ^to the First Clas:; of these, called Mammalia, or 
animals that nurse their young, — to che Second Sub-Class, called Un- 
gulata, or Hoofed Animals, — to the Second order of this Sub-Class, 
called Ruminantia, or Cud-chewing Animals, — to the Family Ovidae, 
or Sheep-like Animals, — to the Genus Ovis, — and to the Species 
Aries. — Hence its Scientific Name is Ovis aries ; and it may be said 
to be a Ruminant Ungulated Mammal. 

It differs in some some respects from, and yet is closely allied to, 
the Ovis Ammon, or Siberian Sheep, — the Ovis Canadensis, or Big 
Horn Sheep of Canada, which is probably the same as the Ovis Mon- 
tana of Colorado, — the Ovis Musimon, or Moufflon of Cyprus, — the 
Ovispolycerata, or Many Horned Sheep, — the Ovis laticauda, or Broad 
Tailed Sheep of Syria, — the Ovis strepsiceros, or Twisted Horned 
Sheep of Crete, — and the Ovis Guiniensis, or Guinea Sheep ; and 
all these are nearly allied to the Capridae, or Goat Family. 

2. The time of the original domestication of the Sheep is entirely 
unknown ; but we have accounts of it in a domestic state, which are 
older than those relating to any other animal in that condition ; and 
it has been a constant companion of civilized man during the whole 
of the historic era at least. 

3. The use of the Sheep was universal among the civilized, and 
many of the barbarous, nations of antiquity ; and it seems to have 
been an important means of national development. 

Its flesh and milk were used for food ; its wool and skin were 
used for clothing, beds, bedding, and ornaments ; and in many cases 



266 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR. 

jBocks of Slieep constituted an important part of the wealth even of 
nobles and monarchs. 

4. Allusions to the Sheep are extremely numerous in the Bible, 
from Genesis to Eevelation. 

Adam and Eve vrere clothed with skins which in all probability 
were Sheep skins. At any rate their second son, Abel, was a keeper 
of Sheep ; and probably the farmer Cain had some, or at least might 
have had some ; else he would not have been censured for not bring- 
ing one as an offering to the Lord. 

Job, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and David, were also keepers of Sheep, 
as were the Jews generally while they remained in Palestine. 

To Shepherds who were watching their flocks by night the Angelic 
Messengers announced the birth of the Savior, the Prince of Peace, 
— "the Lamb of God, which taketh away the sin of the world." 

5. Homer, the oldest Classical Author, makes frequent mention 
of the Sheep. Paris, Isus, and Antiphus, sons of Priam, King of 
Troy, he describes as Shepherds, and makes even Polyphemus the 
Giant, one of the Cyclops, the son of the Sea God, Neptune, to be a 
keeper of Sheep. Herodotus, also, the Father of History, as he is 
called, alludes to the keeping of Sheep among several nations. Vir- 
gil, the Roman Poet, and other Latin Authors, frequently mention 
the Sheep as a well-known domestic animal. 

6. The use of the Sheep in Religious Sacrifices was common among 
the Ancient Greeks and Romans, and especially so among the Jews. 

Among other nations the Pig, Dog, &c. , were sacrificed as well as 
the Sheep ; but to the Jews those animals were unclean ; and they 
were not permitted to sacrifice them. 

Hence the Sheep was used more frequently than it would other- 
wise have been. In fact the Sheep, or rather the Lamb one year old, 
came to be regarded among the Jews as a sort of Symbol of all Sac- 
rifices ; and among Christians it has always been a sacred Symbol 
of that one Great and Final Sacrifice which was offered on Mount 
Calvary, to make at once an Atonement for the sins of all mankind. 

PARTICULAR THEMES. 

When the Theme is a Sentence, or Proposition, the object of the 
writer is usually to prove, or disprove ; or else to illustrate and en- 
force it. 

Sometimes Proof and Illustration are combined in the same dis- 
course. 

niustrations have great effect in rendering a proposition clear and 
making it seem true. In fact they are often mistaken for proofs ; 
but the writer should remember that they are entirely different ; and 
that no amount of illustration can ever prove any thing at all. 



APPENDIX.— COMPOSITION. 267 

EXA3IPLE. 

Theme. It is tlie duty of every person to discourage the use of 
intoxicating drinks. 

PLAN, 

1. Explanation of tlie proposition. 

2. Statement of tlie Argument. 

3. Illustration of the Argument. 

4. Statement and refutation of Objections. 

5. Proof of the things alleged in answer to the Objections. 

6. Development of the Argument for the Proposition. 

7. The Conclusion. 

FILLING UP OF THE PLAN. 

1. This proposition implies that every person ought, in the first 
place, to abstain from the use of intoxicating drinks himself, since 
one's example often carries with it more influence than he can exert 
in any other way ; and if the influence of his example is given in 
favor of the use of such drinks, he cannot be said to discourage their 
use. 

Again, if it is a duty to discourage drinking, it must be on account 
of its injurious effects ; but that which will injure another, will in- 
jure one's self ; and one ought not to injure himself any more than 
to encourage others to injure themselves. Hence the proposition im- 
plies not only that every person ought to discourage the use of intox- 
icating drinks by others, but that he ought to abstain from their use 
himself. 

2. The proposition is evidently true, because the use of intoxicat- 
ing drinks inflicts many and very great evils upon the community, 
and is in no way beneficial. 

It is, of course, assumed, as a first principle, that every person is 
in duty bound to do that which is beneficial, and to abstain from do- 
ing that which is injurious to the public. 

3. In order to prove the proposition, it is necessary to show, not 
only that drinking inflicts great evils upon the community, but that 
it does not confer any benefits ; for it may happen that a thing which 
is sometimes injurious, is at other times beneficial to such an extent 
as to overbalance the injuries, and to be, on the whole, beneficial. — 
Such is the case, for example, with the use of fire. — It sometimes 
results in terrible conflagrations, like those in Portland, Chicago, and 
Boston, but still fire is a thing of such great and universal utility 
that no one dreams of abandoning the use of it. 

Not so, however, with the use of intoxicating drinks ; but its 
results are evil and only evil, and that continually. 

4. It is said, to be sure, by those who are fond of drinking or sell- 



268 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR. 

ing tliese beverages, that tliej are, like fire, beneficial wlien properly 
used, and only injurious when abused ; but this is not so. There is 
no proper use for them. Their effect upon the human constitution 
is always injurious. They always tend to disorder the stomach and 
the nervous system, and to induce disease, even when they are not 
used so as to produce drunkenness. Moreover, if one uses them at 
all, he is always in danger of becoming a drunkard. 

It is said that they promote digestion and cure Dyspepsia by stim- 
ulating the stomach to more efficient action, — that they enable one 
better to endure cold, heat, and fatigue, and to resist the effects of 
malaria and contagion. 

These statements, however, are directly contrary to well-established 
facts. Instead of promoting digestion, they retard or absolutely pre- 
vent it ; — instead of curing Dyspepsia they produce it ; — and instead 
of increasing the vital energies and enabling one to endure cold, heat 
and fatigue, and to resist contagion and malaria, they always dimin- 
ish the vital energies and make one much more likely to be overcome 
by cold or heat, or fatigue, or contagion or miasm. 

It is said that they are valuable and even necessary as medicines. — 
This is not so ; but even if it were so, it would have no bearing upon 
the argument ; for when taken as medicines they are not used as bev- 
erages. 

If they produce any beneficial effects in medicine, those effects are 
due to the Alcohol which they contain, and can be obtained from 
the use of pure Alcohol instead of the filthy stuff called Rum or 
Brandy or Wliiskey. 

It is said that Alcohol is necessarily used in the Arts ; — but that 
has no relation to the proposition, since Alcohol is not a drink. 

5. The proof of these allegations is found, in part, in the testi- 
mony of the most eminent medical men, who have made the subject 
a study, and have arrived at these conclusions from many and care- 
ful observations and experiments. It is claimed that there are at 
least certain advantages accruing to those engaged in the manufac- 
ture and sale of these liquors ; and perhaps this may be so in some 
cases ; but the same may also be said of theft and robbery and mur- 
der. Shall they be justified because those who engage in them de- 
rive some advantages from them? 

6. The evils resulting from the use of intoxicating drinks are 
grievous and almost innumerable. 

This use leads to drunkenness, idleness, poverty, disease, and 
crimes of every grade and form. 

Our cities are filled with paupers, — our prisons are filled with 
criminals, — and the gallows is burdened with victims, — property is 
destroyed and citizens are murdered, — as the result of this use. 



APPENDIX.— COMPOSITION. 2t>9 

Bright hopes are destroyed, family ties are sundered, the young 
and gifted and promising are utterly wrecked, — their prospects 
blighted, and their lives destroyed. 

The country is burdened with taxes, and its prosperity hindered, — 
the church is disgraced, — God is dishonored, — and souls are sent to 
perdition, — through this monstrous practice ! 

These things are too well known to require proof. They are mani- 
fest to every one. 

7. Hence it is evident that it must be the duty of every person to 
discourage the use of intoxicating drinks. 

- SECTION 2.— Poetry. 

Write Verses, Stanzas, and Poems, 

The beginner in Poetical Composition should first undertake single 
Verses. 

Having determined what kind of Verse he will make, he should 
represent it by the proper Symbols. E. g. If he intends to write 
Heroic Verses, let him write this Model : 

He should then select, icithout regard to meaning, a set of words 
corresponding to the symbols in respect to accent, as 

I Command | respect | the man | myself | at home | 

I Before [ surprise | receive | this time | away | etc. , etc. 

These lines constitute what are called Xonsense Verses. 

When he has acquired a little facility in forming such Verses, let 
him select Rhymes, and write Xonsense Couplets, as 

I Remote | on him | believe | the sight | exclaim | 

I Escape | fulfill | suppose | inside | defame | etc., etc. 

When this can be done readily he should form Stanzas, first 
arranging complete Models, and marking, with corresponding letters, 
the lines which are to rhvme together, as in this example : 

l-^l-J^I-^l-^l-wja 
|__|__|__|__|__|b 
|^_|^_|^_|^_|^_|b 

I Wisely | waiting | useful ] by the [ good land | a. 

I Remote ( export | so soon ] at last [ desire [ b. 

I Surmise ] his own | refuse | release | expire | b. 

I Hasty I youthful | therefore | honest | woodland | a. 



270 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR. 

I Hauglitily | miscMevous | universe | villages | foemen | c. 
I Vanity | mellowness | wittily | over tlie | yeomen | c. 

After some practice of this kind witL. Nonsense Verses, tlie writer 
should proceed to write Sense Verses, beginning with Blanlc Verse, 
and afterwards undertaking Rhymed Verse — first in Couplets, and 
then in longer Stanzas. 

Before attempting original composition in Verse, he should take 
some of the Prose Selections from the Grammar or some of the 
Readers, and convert them into Poetry. 

Proceeding thus gradually through these several simple steps, it is 
no difiicult matter, for any ordinary student to learn to write re- 
spectable Verses, Stanzas, and Poems. 

PART IV.-A COURSE FOR SELF-INSTRITCTIOK 

1. Take the List of Sentences at p. 274, and copy a dozen or more 
of them for a Lesson, — changing the Capitals to small letters, — omit- 
ting the points, — and changing the spelling of the words. 

2. Lay aside the Book, and rewrite the Exercise from your manu- 
script, — restoring it, as nearly as possible, to its original condition. 

3. Compare this copy with the Book, and mark the errors. 

4. Rewrite again from the first copy, and so continue until you can 
write the exercise correctly. 

5. Proceed through the List of Sentences and the Selections in the 
Grammar (except the very old ones) ; and then procure some other 
accurately printed Book (as one of Wilson's Readers for example), 
and pursue the same course with it. 

6. Study the Grammar carefully from the beginning ; but omit the 
Chapter on Punctuation until you have completed the one on 
Analysis. 

7. Continue the copying and comparing process until you can 
Spell, and Punctuate, and use Capitals pretty accurately ; and then 
go carefully through with the Elementary, Intermediate, and Higher 
Courses in Composition. 

8. Get some literary friend, if possible, to criticize and mark the 
errors in your productions ; but correct them yourself. 

LIST OF THEMES. 



1. 


An Ax. 


7. 


A Barn. 


13. 


A School. 


2. 


A Plow. 


8. 


A Shop. 


14. 


The Horse. 


3. 


A Wagon. 


9. 


A Store. 


15. 


The Ox. 


4. 


A Fire Engine. 


10. 


A Factory. 


16. 


The Cow. 


5. 


A Locomotive. 


11. 


A Rail Road. 


17. 


The Pig. 


6. 


A House. 


12. 


A School House. 


18. 


The Dog. 



APPEND1X.^C0MP08ITI0N. 



271 



19. The Cat. 

20. The Squirrel. 

21. The Woodchuck. 

22. Poultry. 

23. Domestic Animals. 

24. The Fox. 

25. The Wolf. 
.26. The Bear. 

27. The Lion. 

28. The Elephant. 

29. Wild Animals. 

30. Geography. 

31. Arithmetic. 

32. Grammar. 

33. Algebra. 

34. Geometry. 

35. Nat. Philosophy. 

36. Chemistry 

37. Nat. History. 

38. Botany. 

39. Astronomy. 

40. Languages. 

41. Higher Mathemat- 

ics. 

42. Metaphysics. 

43. School Studies. 

44. Spring. 

45. Summer. 

46. Autumn. 

47. Winter. 

48. The Year. 

49. Childhood. 

50. Youth. 

51. Manhood. 

52. Old Age. 

53. Life. 

54. Death. 

55. Virtue. 

56. Vice. 

57. City Life. 

58. Country Life. 

59. Games. 

60. Ball Playing. 



61. Marbles. 

62. Money. 

63. Coins. 

64. Newspapers. 

65. Novels. 

66. Books. 

67. Reading. 

68. Friends. 

69. Schoolmates. 

70. Corn. 

71. Potatoes. 

72. Wheat. 

73. Grass. 

74. Coal. 

75. Fuel. 

76. Food. 

77. Trades. 

78. Professions. 

79. Carpenters. 

80. Blacksmiths. 

81. Lawyers. 

82. Doctors. 

83. Farmers. 

84. Sailors. 

85. The Ocean. 

86. Commerce. 

87. Merchants. 

88. Fishes. 

89. Shell Fish. 

90. Birds. 

91. Geese. 

92. Turkeys. 

93. Robins. 

94. Blue-Birds. 

95. Black-Birds. 

96. Crows. 

97. Partridges. 

98. Quails. 

99. Pheasants. 

100. Whales. 

101. Steamboats. 

102. The Piano. 

103. The Organ. 



104. The Melodeon. 

105. Band Instru- 

ments. 

106. Music. 

107. Singing Schools. 

108. Drawing. 

109. Painting. 

110. Sculpture. 

111. The Fine Arts. 

112. Dress. 

113. Fashions. 

114. Freedom. 

115. Government. 

116. Congress. 

117. Legislatures. 

118. Taxes. 

119. Tariffs. 

120. Usury Laws. 

121. Drunkenness. 

122. Liquor Laws. 

123. Banking. 

124. Auctions. 

125. Gold-digging. 

126. Diamonds. 

127. Great Men. 

128. Washington. 

129. Jefferson. 

130. Franklin. 

131. Patrick Henry. 

132. Prof. Morse. 

133. Columbus. 

134. Bryant. 

135. Longfellow. 

136. Whittier. 

137. Tennyson, 

138. Mrs. Browning. 

139. Arkwright. 

140. Fulton. 

141. Gough. 

142. Agassiz. 

143. Guyot. 

144. Erricson. 



272 



A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIG GRAMMAR. 



145. 
146. 
147. 
148. 
149. 
150. 
151. 
152. 
153. 
154. 
155. 
156. 
157. 
158. 
159. 
160. 

161. 
162. 

163. 

164. 
165. 

166. 
167. 
168. 
169. 



194. 
195. 
196. 
197. 
198. 
199. 
200. 
201. 
202. 
203. 
204. 
205. 



The Discovery of America. 

The Exploration of Africa. 

The Finding of Livingstone. 

The Invention of Printing. 

The Discovery of Oxygen. 

The Manufacture of Glass. 

The Manufacture of Soda. 

The Manufacture of Cotton. 

The Manufacture of Wool. 

The Manufacture of Iron. 

The Discovery of Neptune. 

The Spectrum Analysis. 

The Invention of the Telescope. 

The Invention of the Steel Pen 

The Invention of the Gold Pen. 

The Invention of Bleaching Pow- 
ders. 

The Invention of Gun Powder. 

The Invention of the Mowing Ma- 
chine. 

The Invention of the Sewing Ma- 
chine. 

The Invention of the Rail Road. 

The Invention of the Mariner's 
Compass. 

The Invention of the Safety Lamp. 

The Invention of the Microscope. 

The Invention of the Cotton Gin. 

The Invention of the Cooking 
Stove. 



170. Discoveries in Pales- 
tine. 

171. Pre-Historic Nations. 

172. Repeating Fire Arms. 

173. Western Mounds. 

174. Fossil Remains. 

175. American Minerals. 

176. Collections of Coins. 

177. Courses of Study. 

178. Teaching as a Profes- 
sion. 

179. The Camel in Amer- 
ica. 

180. The Public Lands. 

181. Agricultural Colleges. 

182. Compulsory Educa- 
tion. 

183. The British Empire. 

184. French History. 

185. The Western Fever. 

186. Proper Use of Carica- 
ture. 

187. Presidential Elections*. 

188. Chinese Immigration. 

189. William the Conquer- 
or. 

190. Unconscious I n fl u- 
ence. 

191. Protective Tariffs. 

192. The Influence of 
Newspapers. 

193. Indirect Taxation. 
A man's Character is known by that of his Associates. 

A man's manners commonly shape his fortune. 

Moderate drinking leads to drunkenness. 

Liquor Selling is an immoral occupation. 

Immoral practices should not be licensed. 

Novel reading is of pernicious tendency. 

The taste for Fiction is one of the great evils of the Age. 

Fictitious Literature should be excluded from Sabbath Schools. 

Education is the great business of Life. 

Knowledge is not education. 

Monopolies are becoming dangerous to American Liberty. 

To exact excessive profits on merchandise is a species of robbery. 



APPENDIX.— COMPOSITION. 273 

206, Indirect taxation is direct oppression. 

297, Tlie clamor for Sliort Courses of Study is excessively foolish. 

203. Tlie claim tliat tlie higher Education is not 'practical is false. 

209. Audacity is always an evidence of baseness of character. 

210. Procrastination is a most dangerous habit. 

211. A suspicious temper is a source of misery to its possessor. 

212. A Quack in Medicine robs people of both money and life. 

213. A Quack in Theology robs a man of both his money and his 

soul. 

214. Scientific Discoveries are the basis of Inventions in the Arts. 

215. The Mind makes the Man. 

216. There is no excellence without great labor. 

217. Labor accomplishes all things. 

218. Too much familiarity generally breeds contempt. 

219. Wealth is not indispensable to happiness. 

220. Wealth without intelligence and virtue, cannot procure happi- 

ness. 

221. A man should do right, simply because it is right. 

233. Every person should endeavor to rise to some higher condition. 

233, What are the advantages of Education to the Farmer ? 

224. Why should common laborers be educated ? 

225. What are the benefits of studying the Ancient Languages ? 
220. What is the use of studying Latin and Greek Prosody ? 

227. Why should ladies study Chemistry? 

228. Should not a man confine his studies to the line of his Profes- 

sion ? 

229. What is the use of Astronomy to a Shoemaker ? 

230. How is a Carpenter benefited by studying Latin ? 

231. What should be one's chief purpose in life ? 

232. Why should one acquire wealth ? 

233. Why should one learn a Trade or study a Profession ? 

234. What is a Pratical Education ? 

235. Is it not a waste of time to study the Fine Arts ? 

236. Is it good policy to build up great Colleges ? 

237. Should the smaller Colleges be discouraged for the sake of the 

larger ? 

238. Is it morally wrong to use Tobacco ? 

239. Is a farmer justifiable in selling his grain to a distiller? 

240. Should there be any restriction upon the freedom of the Press ? 

241. Ought foreign immigration to be encouraged ? 

242. Should a man be permitted to vote who cannot read ? 

243. Should paupers be permitted to vote ? 



274 



A COMPLETE SGIENTIFIG GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER II. 

1. Wisdom is precious. 

2. Gold is yellow. 

3. John is diligent. 

4. Tliey are students. 

5. We were classmates. 

6. You will be glad. 

7. I am fearful. 

8. Thou art careful. 

9. James is a carpenter. , 

10. It is a pity. 

11. The boy is waiting, 

12. It is raining. 

13. The boys were playing. 

14. Thou wast confident. 
] 5. The letter is written. 

16. The men were seen. 

17. The books have been studied. 

18. They can be ready. 

19. You must be careful. 

20. The house might be bought. 

21. The land could be sold. 

22. They would be present. 

23. Scholars should be diligent. 

24. Wise persons may be mis- 

taken. 

25. Such things have been seen. 

26. Many reports had been heard. 

27. Thou hast been deceived. 

28. The truth has been discov- 

ered. 

29. Thou hadst been advised. 

30. The book will have been read. 

31. Thou wilt have been omitted. 

32. The ground was not frozen, 

33. The story will not be believed. 

34. The girls have not been dili- 

gent, 

35. They cannot have been in- 

formed. 
36 Silver is not yellow. 

37, John was not reading. 

38, Were they not ready ? 



-EXERCISES. 

39. Are you certain ? 

40. You were present ? 

41. Will he not be prepared ? 

42. How many were present ? 

43. Who will be incommoded ? 

44. If I were sure of it. 

45. Be not discouraged, 

46. Him to be benefited. 

47. How beautiful the fields are ! 

48. What a pity it is 1 

49. He remembers. 

50. James wrote. 

51. They will not come. 

52. The men had not gone. 

53. The time will not have ex- 

pired, 

54. Do they remember ? 

55. Did you not perceive ? 

56. Have they not discovered ? 

57. They must have written, 

58. Why do the men not come ? 

59. They have not written ? 

60. If they had anticipated. 

61. Bring me the books. 

62. Them to return. 

63. How quickly he succeeded ! 

64. What carefulness he mani. 

fested ! 

65. She sings very sweetly ? 

66. Did they recite promptly ? 

67. When did the horse run 

away? 

68. The old man lost his hat. 

69. How did the man break his 

arm? 

70. How foolishly he sold his 

house ? 

71. I shall return to-morrow. 

72. A very beautiful book. 

73. In an extremely short time. 

74. Ketiring at an early hour. 

75. Can they be mistaken ? 



APPENDIX.— COMPOSITION. 



275 



76 

77 



78 



85, 
80 



89. 



90. 



91. 



92. 



93. 



94. 



95. 



96. 



You and I liave missed our 

recitation. 
You and lie have failed in 

your lesson. 
He wrote and folded tlie let- 
ter. 
He and Jolin built and painted 

tlie house. 
He and I went and saw the 

man. 
Butter and eggs are plenty 

and cheap. 
Gold, silver, and copper are 

useful. 
He was poor, friendless, and 

discouraged. 



To study so continually. 

He cut the string with a 
knife. 

The little girls write beauti- 
fully. 

79. The white dove broke the 

window. 

80. They have returned from the 

fair. 

81. How can they be certain ? 

82. Why will he go there ? 

83. Give them an opportunity. 
8i How strangely they act ! 

We did not believe the story. 
Thomas and John went. 

87. They went and returned. 

88. He is weary and sick. 

97. Henry and his father drove out the cattle and mended the fence. 

98. The wheat and the rye were not smitten and destroyed. 
Are the Sun and Moon very large bodies ? 
Are not famine and pestilence the scourges of God ? 
Why are fever and other diseases so prevalent in new countries ? 
Are not you and William studying Algebra ? 
How long have Arithmetic and Geometry been studied ? 

104. Were the Greeks and the Romans equally proficient in the Sci- 
ences ? 
How conspicuous in History are Bonaparte, and Caesar, and 

Alexander ! 
How manifestly have Smith and Jones not fulfilled their pro- 
mises ! 

107. He tried the effect of flattery ; but he was not successful. 

108. I went to the city yesterday ; and John will go there to-morrov*-. 

109. Wine is a mocker ; strong drink is raging ; and whosoever is de- 

ceived thereby is not wise. 

110. The prisoner has been convicted, and has received his sentences. 

111. The buildings were not destroyed, but were seriously damaged. 

112. This man has acquired a small, and that man a large, fortune. 

113. It is well to rejoice moderately, but not immoderately, in good 

fortune, 

114. When I shall see it, then I will believe it. 

115. Though he had no money, yet he found means to go. 

116. As in Adam all die, so in Christ shall all be made alive. 

117. because he is himself dishonest, therefore he thinks that all 

men are so. 



99. 
100. 
101. 
102. 
103. 



105. 



106. 



276 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR. 

118. If you will assist me, then I will undertake it. 

119. If those statements are true, he is certainly a great villian. 

120. If those statements were true, he would be a great villain. 

121. If the man had the goods, he certainly should pay for them. 

122. If the man had the goods, he might easily sell them. 

123. I wrote, because it amused me. 

124. When he had finished the speech, he resumed his seat. 

125. He left the things exactly where he found them. 

126. Had he asked me to assist him, I would have done it. 

127. Were I in his place, I would resign my Commission. 

128. A professed Catholic, he imprisoned the Pope. 

129. Being conscious of his error, he tried to apologize. 

130. Reduced to extreme necessity, he returned to his father. 

131. I was hungry ; and ye gave me no meat. 

132. Their provisions were almost exhausted ; and yet they would 

not surrender, 

133. This event having occurred, he necessarily returned home. 

134. The provisions having been stolen, we were in great want. 

135. Because, when he was young, he was idle and vicious ; there- 

fore, when he was old, he was wretched and despised, 

136. Therefore, indeed, he returned the watch, for it was of little 

value ; but he did not, therefore, return the diamonds, for 
they were of more value than the reward offered. 

137. Though, when he was young, he had lost his estate ; yet, when 

he was old, he recovered it. 

138. Because, though he was poor, he had cultivated his powers ; 

therefore, though the rich were his competitors, yet he bore 
off the prize. 

139. He sings, indeed, as well as John sings ; but he does not speak 

as well as Henry speaks. 

140. Phillips speaks as well as Sumner ; but he does not reason as 

well. 

141. Henceforth I call you not servants, for the servant knoweth not 

what his lord doeth ; but I have called you friends, for all 
things that I have heard of my Father I have made known to 
you. John 15 : 15. 

142. If they have persecuted me, they will also persecute you ; if 

they have kept my saying, they will keep yours also. 

143. Where no wood is, there the fire goeth out ; so where there is 

no talebearer, the strife ceaseth. 

144. When righteous men do rejoice, there is great glory ; but when 

the wicked rise, a man is hidden, 

145. Wlien the wicked rise, men hide themselves ; but when they 

perish, the righteous increase. 



APPENDIX.— COMPOSITION. 211 

146. Wlien the righteous are in authority, the people rejoice ; but 

when the wicked beareth rule, the people mourn. 

147. If, when he had good opportunities for education, he had im- 

proved them ; then, when an excellent situation was offered 
him, he would have been prepared for it. 

148. If, when the public money was committed to his care, he appro- 

priated it to his own use ; then when this can be proved, he 
should suffer the just penalty of his crime. 

149. 1 had forgotten the circumstances which you mention. 

150. We have just seen the man that fell from the roof yesterday. 

151. I have heard of the man of whom you speak. 

152. The man who is honorable in his dealings, will be respected. 
153 Those who waste their time will never prosper. 

154. He that is wise will shun temptation. 

155. That which is agreeable is often dangerous. 

15G Such men should fill public offices as are honest and capable. 

157. Such as secure office by bribery should be punished. 

158. Has-e you heard what happened to him yesterday? 
159 Whoever obtains this prize, he will be fortunate, 

160. Blessed is he whosoever shall not be offended in me. 

161. Whosesoever sins ye remit, they are remitted unto them. 
168. I will do whatsoever thou sayest unto me. 

163. Each one took whatever he could get. 

164. He had returned the day before, which was fortunate for him. 

165. They have now, which is almost incredible, recovered the money. 

166. He says that he will certainly go again to-morrow. 

167. " I will not be imposed upon " was his reply. 

168. His answer was " I have never seen the man." 

169. John said ' ' I have no discretion in this matter. " 

170. It is not easy to discover how this thing was done. 

171. To deny the fact is to add infamy to folly 

172. To read well and to write well are very desirable accomplish- 

ments. • 

173. He said that he would go, and that he would accomplish his 

purpose. 

174. One of the most infamous things is to ignore obligations, and 

to insult and abuse those who are friendly. 

175. That one should be mistaken, and that he should commit 

errors, is simply that he should be human, and that he should 
act humanly. 

176. " I have not seen him " was an answer equivalent to saying " I 

will not tell you where he is." 

177. I wish that I luiew where I could find him. 

178. He said that if he luiew where he could find a good horse for 

sale, be would go and buy it at once. 



278 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR. 

179. "The Union must and sliall be preserved** was said bv Gen. 

Jackson. 

180. The attempt to tunnel tlie Hoosac Mountain was very bold, 

and cost the state of Massachusetts a great sum of money. 

181. To neglect opportunities for improvement is not less disgrace- 

ful than to squander one's patrimony in luxury and vice. 

182. Is it not better to suffer wrong than to do wrong ? 

183. Did he say " I will never speak to that man again " ? 

184. How soon did he say that he would return ? 

185. '* Time and tide wait for no man " is a saying often heard but 

seldom heeded. 

186. To retaliate an injury is to make two wrongs where there was 

but one before. 

187. Saving the fruits of his labor, he was at length able to buy a 

farm. 

188. I have given five times as much as he ; and yet I fear that I 

have not given enough. 

189. Let him see that something is to be gained by study ; and 

then he will apply himself to books. 

190. This event having occurred, he felt unable to remain in that 

place. 

191. In order to succeed, it is necessary that they should seem 

honest. 

192. In order to meet this demand, he was obliged to sell his farm. 

193. To secure the life of his friend he cheerfully gave up his own. 

194. It was not an eclipse that caused the darkness at the crucifixion 

of our Lord, for the sun and moon were not relatively in a po- 
sition to produce an eclipse ; but a direct interposition of God, 
for on no other supposition can we account for it. 

195. They had not come in search of gain, for the soil was sterile 

and unproductive ; but they had come that they might wor- 
ship God according to the dictates of their own consciences. 

196. W« must not impute the delay to indifference, for delay may 

be designed to promote our happiness. 

197. It is not his power, as attested by all that exists within the 

limits of actual discovery ; but his power as conceived to 
form and uphold a universe whose outskirts are unknown. 

198. You were paid to fight against Alexander ; not to rail at him. 

199. Strong proofs, not a loud voice, produce conviction. 

200. What was the consequence of his rashness ? 

201 . Let it not be said that you have learned nothing in school this 

term. 
202 Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor. 
203. Turn we a moment Fancy's rapid flight. 



APPENDIX.— COMPOSITION. 279 

204. Fall he who must beneath a rival's arms. 

20o. In sooth he was a strange and wayward wight. 

206. Even if I icas there, I was where I had a right to be. 

207. I saw the iron becoming hot. 

208. There required haste in the business. 

209. He said that if John came back, he would give him a farm. 

210. He hoped that when they saw this, they would return. 

211. I cared not whether he were rich or poor. 

212. Though I be a beggar, yet I have some rights. 

213. Though I were a beggar, yet I should have some rights. 

214. The book belongs to Sam the Miller's son, 

215. The book belongs to Sam, -the Miller's son. 

216. The enemy having his country wasted, what by himself and 

what by the soldiers, findeth succor in no place, 

217. That was the effect of his obeying the rule. 

218. His being a foreigner prevented his election. 

219. This was owing to there being twelve men in the house. 

220. That is wholly a mistake. 

221. He does not work at farming, for that is not profitable , but 

he works at mining, for that is more remunerative, 

222. Where there is great impudence, there is indeed always very 

little sense ; but when a fool's insolence exceeds certain limits, 
it then seems best to chastise him. 

223. Having entered the hall, he spoke thus ; ' ' Gentlemen, the 

King requires your immediate presence at the Palace." 

224. It is to that Union we owe our safety. 

225. I looked him full in the face, 

226. They were all captured, to a man. 

227. The next speaker, and he evidently had been there, gave a 

description of England. 

228. He, and not I, made that statement. 

229. He gathered the harvest ; he sowed the seed ; he plowed the 

land. 
330. I gave him a dollar, which was all the money I had. 

231. He is always annoying his neighbors, who are much afraid of 

him. 

232. The man has been condemned ; the case has been tried. 

233. "I shall write" and "Iron is strong" and "He went" are 

three simple sentences. 

234. "He caved "and "They skedaddled" signify *' He yielded" 

and " They ran away." 

235. The expressions "I'm done for" and "He's gone up", and 

" They are some pumpkins " are examples of " slang", 

236. "He fizzled" and "They slumped" and "Tom cut stick" 



280 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR. 

are equal in vulgarity to "He absquatulated" and "They 
went to grub " and " Sam kicked the bucket ". 

237. " They said that he would sing" is a sentence of the fourth 

Class. 

238. Did he not say " The time is short " ? 

239. Is the sentence " That is him " correct ? 

240. Why did he say " You are mistaken " ? 

241. What kind of a sentence is "If this report is true, then Le is 

not wise " ? 

242. They have returned to England, whence they came. 

243. Cries of " I see him", "I hear him", and "Where is he?" 

were heard on all sides. 

244. While he was saying "I hope they will be caught" he heard 

cries of " There he goes", " Stop him", «&c. 
24of He saw no other man than John. 

246. They have returned from Spain, whither they went last year. 

247. They have no money wherewith they may purchase food. 

248. James and John and Thomas declared that the statement was 

false. 

249. To utter falsehoods is dishonorable and dangerous. 

250. To speak falsely is always to speak foolishly. 

251. I had rather go than stay. 

252. You had better come with me. 



CHAPTER III-SELECTIONS. 

1. — From the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. 

Sixtigum wintrum aer tham the Crist waere acenned., Gains Julius 
se casere aerest Romana Brytenland gesohte, and Bryttas mid gefeohte 
cnysede, and hi oferswithde. 

A. D. 381. Her Gotan tobraecon Romeburh, and naefre siththan 
Romane ne ricsodon on Br^^ene. 

A. D. 449. Her Hengest and Horsa fram Wyrtgeorne gelathode, 
Brytta cyninge, gesohton Brytene Bryttum to fultume. Hi comon 
mid thrim langum scipum. 

A. D. 455. Her Hengest and Horsa fuhton with Wyrtgeorne tham 
cyninge. Horsan man thaer ofsloh ; and aefter tham Hengest feng 
to rice, and Aesc his sunu. 

A. D. 596. Her Gregorius papa sende to Brytene Augustinum mid 
wel manegum munucum, the Godes word Engla theode godspellodon. 

A. D. 827. Her geeode Ecgbriht cyning Mearcena rice, and eal 



APPENDIX.— SELECTIONS. 281 

thaet be suthan Humbre waes ; and be waes se eabtotba cyning tbe 
Brytenwealda waes. 

A. D. 872. Her gefor Aetbered cyning, Tba feng Aelfred Aetbel- 
wulfing bis brotbor to West-Seaxena rice ; and tbaes ymb anne mon- 
atb gefeabt Aelfred cyning witb eabie tbone baetbenne bere lytle 
werode aet Wiltune. 

A. D. 1066. Her com Willelni eorl of Normandige into Pef enasae ; 

and Harold cyning gaderode tba micelne bere, and com bim togeanes ; 

and Willelm bim com ongean on unwaer, aer bis f olc gefylced waere. 

A. D, 1087. Her Willelm fortbferde. — He laefde aefter bim tbreo 
sunan. 

3. — From Wage's Coronation of Arthur. — A. D. 1170. 

Quand li rois leva del mangier, 
Ale sunt tuit esbanoier, 
De la cite es cbamps issirent ; 
A plusors gieux se despartirent. 
Li uns alerent boborder, 
Et les ineaux cbevalx monstrer. 
Li autre alerent e cremir, 
Ou pierres ^etier, ou saillir. 
Tielx i avoit qui dars lancoent, 
Et tielx i avoit qui lutoent ; 
Chascun del gieu s'entremetoit 
Qui entremetre se savoit. 

3. — From a Charter of Henry III. — A. D. 1258. 
Henry, tburg Godes fultome, King on Engleneloande, Lboaverd 
on Yrloand, Duk on Norman, on Acquitain, Earl on Anjou, send I 
greting, to alle bise bolde, ilaerde and ilewede on Huntindonn- 
scbiere. Tbaet witen ge wel alle, tbaet we willen and unnen, tbaet 
ure raedesmen alle otber tbe moare del of beom, tbaet beotb icbosen 
tburg us and tburg tbaet loandes-folk on ure kinericbe, babbitb 
idon, and scbullen don in tbe wortbnes of God, and ure treowtbe, 
for tbe freme of tbe loande, tburg tbe besigte of tban toforen iseide 
raedesmen, &c. 

4. — From Robert's Chronicle. — A. D. 1298. 

Engelond ys a wel god lond, icb wene of ecbe lond best, 

Yset in tbe ende of tbe world, as al in tbe west. 

Tbe see gotb bym al about, be stent as an yle. 

Here fon beo durre tbe lasse doute, but bit be tborw gyle 

Of folc of tbe selve lond, as me batb y-seye wyle. 

From soutb to nortb be ys long eigbte bondred myle. 

And tbe Normans ne coutbe speke tbo bote ber owe specbe. 

And speke Frencb as dude atom, and bere cbildren dude al so tecbe. 



282 



A COMPLETE 8GIENT1FIG GRAMMAR. 



So that lieymen of tliys lond, tliat of her blod come, 
Holdetli alle tliulke speclie, that hii of hem nome, 
Vor bote a man couthe French, me tolth of hym wel lute ; 
And lowe men holdeth to Englyss, and to her kunde speche yute. 
5. — From the Vision of Piers Ploughman. — A. D. 1362. 



In a somer seson 
Whan softe was the sonne, 
I shoop me into shroudes 
As I a sheep weere, 
5. In habite as an heremite 
Unholj of workes, 
Wente wide in this world 
Wondres to here ; 
Ac on a May morwenynge 

10. On Malverne hilles 
Me bifel a f erly, 
Of fairye me thoghte. 
I was wery for-wandred. 
And wente me to reste 

15. Under a brood bank 
By a bournes side ; 
And as I lay and lenede, 
And I loked on the watres, 
I slombred into a slepyng, 

20. It sweyed so murye. 
Thanne gan I meten 
A merveillous swevene. 
That I was in a wildernesse, 



Wiste 1 nevere where, 
25. And as I biheeld into the 
eest. 

An heigh to the sonne, 

I seigh a tour on a toft 

Trieliche y-maked. 

A deep dale bynethe, 
30. A dongeon therinne. 

With depe diches and derke 

And dredf ulle of sighte. 

A fair feeld f ul of folk 

Fond I ther bitwene, 
35. Of alle manere of men. 

The meene and the riche, 

Werchynge and wandringe. 

As the world asketh. 

Some putten hem to the plow, 
40. Pleiden ful selde. 

In settynge and sowinge 

Swonken ful harde, 

And wonnen that wastours 

With glotonye destruyeth. 



6. — From the Narrative of Sir John Mandeville, — A.D. 1356. 

1. In that Lond, ne in many othere beyonde that, no man may see 
the Sterre transmontane, that is clept the Sterre of the See, that is 
unmevable, and that is toward the Northe, that we clepen the Lode 
Sterre. But men seen another Sterre, the contrarie to him, that is 
toward the Southe, that is clept Antartyk. 

2. And right as the Schip men taken here avys here, and governe 
hem be the Lode Sterre, right so don Schip men beyonde the parties, 
be the Sterre of the Southe, the whiche Sterre apperethe not to us. 
And this Sterre, that is toward the northe, that wee clepen the Lode 
Starre, ne apperethe not to hem. 

3. For whiche cause, men may wel perceyve, that the Lond and 
the See ben of rownde schapp and forme. For the partie of the 
firmament schewethe in o contree, that schewethe not in another 
contree. And men may well preven be experience and sotyle com- 



APPENDIX.— SELECTIONS. 283 

passement of wytt, that yif a man fond passages be Scliippes, that 
wolde go to serclien the world, men myghte go be Schippe alle abonte 
the world, and aboven and benethen. 

7. — From the Clerke's Tale, by Chaucer, — A. D. 1400. 

1. Ther is right at the West side of Itaille 
Doiin at the rote of Vesulus the cold, 
A lusty plain, habundant of vitaille. 

Ther many a toun and tour thou maist behold. 
That founded were in time of fathers old. — 
And many another delitable sighte, — 
And Saluces this noble contree highte. 

2. A markis whilom lord was of that lond. 
As were his worthy elders him before, 
And obeysant, ay redy to his hond. 
Were all his lieges, bothe lesse and' more. 
Thus in delit he liveth, and hath don yore. 
Beloved and drad, thurgh favor of fortune. 
Both of his lordes, and of his commune. 

31. Nought fer fro thilke paleis honourable, 

Wher as this markis shope his mariage, 
Ther stood a thorpe, of sighte delitable. 
In which that poure folk of that village 
Hadden hir bestes and Mr herbergage, 
And of hir labour toke hir sustenance. 
After that the erthe yave hem habundance. 

23 Among this poure folk ther dwelt a man. 

Which that was holden pourest of hem all 
(But highe God sometime senden can 
His grace unto a litel oxes stall), 
Janicula men of that thorpe him call. 
A doughter had he, faire ynough to sight, 
And Grisildis this yonge maiden hight. 

8.— ENGLISH COURAGE.— By Sir John Fortescue.— A. D. 1450. 

It is cowardise and lack of hartes and corage that kepith the 
Frenchmen from rysyng, and not povertye ; which corage no 
Frenche man hath like to the English man. 

It hath ben often seen in Englond that iij or iv thefes, for povertie, 
hath sett upon vij or viij true men, and robbyd them al. But it 
hath not ben seen in Fraunce that vij or viij thefes have ben hardy 
to robbe iij or iv true men. Wherfor it is right seld that French- 
men be hangyd for robberye, for that they have no hertys to do so 



284 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC ORAMMAU 

terryble an acte. There be therfor mo men liangyd in Englond, in a 
yere, for robberye and manslaughter, than ther be hangid in Fraunce 
for such cause of crime in vij yers. 

9.— JACK CADE.— By Robert Fabian.— A. D. 1500. 

And in the moneth of Juny this yere, the commons of Kent assem- 
blyd them in grete multytude, and chase to them a capitayne, and 
named hym Mortymer, and cosyn to the Duke of Yorke ; but of most 
he was named Jack Cade. 

This kepte the people wondrouslie togader, and made such orde- 
naunces amonge theym, that he brought a grete nombre of people of 
theym vnto the Blak Heth, where he deuysed a bylle of petycions to 
the kynge and his counsyll. 

10. From the Geneva Bible. — Tr. by Coverdale. — A. D. 1557. 

John 14 : 1. — And he sayd vnto his disciples, Let not your hart be 
troubled, ye beleue in God : beleue also in me. 

2. In my Fathers house are many dwelling places : if it were not 
so, I would haue tolde you : I go to prepare a place for you. 

3. And if I go to prepare a place for you, I will come again, and 
receaue you, euen vnto my selfe : that where I am, there may ye be 
also. 

4. And whyther I go ye knowe, and the way ye knowe. 

5. Thomas sayd vnto hym, Lord we know not whither thou goest : 
how then is it possible for vs to knowe the way ? 

11. — From the Authorized Version. — A. D. 1611. 

John 14 : 1. — Let not your heart be troubled : yee beleeue in God, 
beleeue also in me. 

2. In my Fathers house are many mansions ; if it were not so, I 
would haue told you : I goe to prepare a place for you, 

3. And if I goe and prepare a place for you, I will come againe, 
and receiue you vnto my selfe, that where I am, there ye may be 
also. 

4. And whither I goe yee know, and the way ye know. 

5. Thomas saith vnto him. Lord, we know not whither thou goest : 
and how can we know the way ? 

12. — From the Fairie Queene. — By Spenser. — A. D. 1590. 

7. Enforst to seeke some covert nigh at hand, 
A shadie grove not farr away they spide. 
That promist ayde the tempest to withstand ; 
Whose loftie trees, yclad with sommers pride, 
Did spred so broad, that heavens light did hide, 



APPENDIX.— SELECTIONS. 285 

Not perceable with power of any starr : 
And all within were pathes and alleles wide. 
With footing worne, and leading inward farr : 
Faire harbour that them seems ; so in thej entred ar. 

8. And foorth they passe, with pleasure forward led. 
Joying to heare the birdes sweete harmony, 
Which, therein shrouded from the tempest dred, 
Seemd in their song to scome the cruell sky. 
Much can they praise the trees so straight and hy. 
The sayling pine ; the cedar proud and tall ; 
The vine-propp elme ; the poplar never dry ; 
The builder oake, sole king of forrests all ; 

The aspine good for staves ; the cypresse f unerall ; 

9. The laurell, meed of mightie conquerours 
And poets sage ; the firre that weepeth still ; 
The willow, worne of forlorne paramours ; 
The eugh, obedient to the benders will ; 

The birch for shaftes ; the sallow for the mill ; 

The mirrhe sweete-bleeding in the bitter wound ; 

The warlike beech ; the ash for nothing ill ; 

The fruitfull olive ; and the platane round ; 

The carver holme ; the maple seeldom inward sound. 

10. Led with delight, they thus beguile the way, 
Untill the blustring stomie is overblowne ; 
When, weening to returne whence they did stray. 
They cannot finde that path, which first was showne. 
But wander too and fro in waies unknowne. 
Furthest from end then, when they neerest weene, 
That makes them doubt their wits be not their owne : 
So many pathes, so many turnings seene. 

That, which of them to take, in diverse doubt they been. 

11. At last resolving forward still to fare. 
Till that some end they finde, or in or oux. 

That path they take, that beaten seemed most bare, 

And like to lead the labyrinth about ; 

Which when by tract they hunted had throughout 

At length it brought them to a hoUowe cave, 

Amid the thickest woods. The Champion stout 

Eftsoones dismounted from his courser brave. 

And to the Dwarfe a while his needlesse spere he gave. 



286 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR. 



13.— ANGELS, MEN, AND BEASTS.— By Richard Hooker.— 

A. D. 1600. 

In tlie matter of Knowledge, there is between the Angels of God, 
and the Children of Men, this difference : Angels already have full 
and compleat knowledge in the highest degree that can be imparted 
unto them : Men, if we view them in their Spring, are at the first with- 
out understanding or knowledge at all. Nevertheless, from this ut- 
ter vacuity they grow by degrees, till they come at length to be even 
as the Angels themselves are. That which agreeth to the one now, 
the other shall attain unto in the end ; they are not so far disjoyned 
and severed, but that they come at length to meet. 

The Soul of man being therefore at the first, as a Book, wherein 
nothing is, and yet all things may be imprinted ; we are to search by 
what steps and degrees it riseth unto Perfection of Knowledge. 

Unto that which hath been already set down concerning Natural 
Agents, this we must add. That albeit therein we have comprised as 
well Creatures living, as void of life, if they be in degree of nature 
beneath Men ; nevertheless, a difference we must observe between 
those Natural Agents that work altogether unwittingly ; and those 
which have, though weak, yet some understanding what they do, as 
Fishes, Fowls, and Beasts have. Beasts are in sensible capacity as 
ripe even as Men themselves, perhaps more ripe. 

14. — MuRELLUS ON C^SAR. — Shakspeare. — A. D. 1605. 

Wherefore reioyce ? 

What Conquest brings he home ? 

What Tributaries follow him to Rome, 

To grace in Captiue bonds his Chariot Wheeles ? 

You Blockes, you stones, you worse then senslesse things : 

O you hard hearts, you cruell men of Rome, 

Knew you not Pompey many a time and oft ? 

Haue you not climb'd vp to Walles and Battlements, 

To Towres, and Windowes ? Yea, to Chimney tops, 

Your Infants in your Armes, and there haue sate 

The liue-long day, with patient expectation, 

To see great Pompey pass the streets of Rome : 

And when you saw his Chariot but appeare, 

Haue you not made an Vniuersall shout, 

That Tyber trembled vnderneath her bankes 

To hear the replication of your sounds. 

Made in her Concaue Shores ? 

And do you now put on your best attyre ? 

And do you cull out a Holyday ? 



APPENDIX.— SELECTIONS. 287 

And do you now strew Flowers in his way, 
That conies in Triumph ouer Pompeyes blood ? 
Be gone, 

Runne to your houses, fall vpon your knees. 
Pray to the Gods to intermit the plague 
That needs must light on this Ingratitude. 

15.— TRAGEDY.— By John Milton.- A. D. 1670. 

Tragedy, as it was anciently compos'd, hath been ever held the 
gravest, moralest, and the most profitable of all other poems : there- 
fore said by Aristotle to be of power by raising pity and fear, or ter- 
ror, to purge the mind of those and such like passions, that is, to 
temper and reduce them to just measure with a kind of delight, 
stirr'd up by reading or seeing those pa5sions well imitated. 

Nor is Nature wanting in her own effects to make good his asser- 
tion : for so in physic, things of melancholic hue and quality are us'd 
against melancholy, sour against sour, salt to remove the salt humors. 
Hence Philosophers and other gravest writers, as Cicero, Plutarch 
and others, frequently cite out of tragic poets, both to adorn and illus- 
trate their discourse. The Apostle Paul himself thought it not un- 
worthy to insert a verse of Euripides into the text of Holy Scripture, 
1 Cor. XV. 33, and Paraeus commenting on the Revelation, divides 
the whole book as a tragedy, into acts distinguished each by a chorus 
of heavenly harpings and song between. Heretofore men in highest 
dignity have labor'd, not a little to be thought able to compose a 
tragedy. 

Of that honor Dionysius the elder was no less ambitious, than be- 
fore of his attaining to the tyranny. Augustus Caesar also had begun 
his Ajax, but unable to please his own judgement with what he had 
begun, left it unfinish'd. Seneca the philosopher is by some thought 
the author of those tragedies, (at least the best of them) that go un- 
der that name. 

Gregory Nazianzen, a Father of the Church, thought it not unbe- 
seeming the sanctity of his person to write a tragedy, which is 
entitled Christ suffering. 

16. — From Samson Agontstes. — By Milton. — A. D. 1670. 
That fault I take not on me, but transfer 
On Israel's governors, and heads of tribes. 
Who seeing those great acts which God had done 
Singly by me against their conquerors, 
5. Acknowledg'd not, or not at all consider'd 
Deliverance offer'd : I on th' other side 
Us'd no ambition to commend my deeds, 



288 A C03IPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR. 

The deeds themselves, though mute, spoke loud the doer ; 

But they persisted deaf, and would not seem 
10. To count them things worth notice, till at length 

Their Lords the Philistines with gather' d powers 

Enter' d Judea seeking me, who then 

Safe to the rock of Etham was retir'd, 

Not flying, but fore-casting in what place 
15. To set upon them, what advantag'd best : 

Mean while the men of Judah, to prevent 

The harrass of their land, beset me round ; 

I willingly on some conditions came 

Into their hands, and they as gladly yield me 
20. To the uncircumcis'd a welcome prey. 

Bound with two cords ; but cords to me were threds 

Touch'd with the flame : on their whole host I flew 

Unarm'd, and with a trivial weapon fell'd 

Their choicest youth ; they only lived who fled. 
25. Had Judah that day joined, or one whole tribe, 

They had by this possess' d the tow'rs of Gath, 

And lorded over them whom now they serve : 

But what more oft in nations grown corrupt, 

And by their vices brought to servitude, 
30. Than to love bondage more than liberty. 

Bondage with ease than strenuous liberty ; 

And to despise, or envy, or suspect 

Whom God hath of his special favor rais'd 

As their deliverer ; if he ought begin, 
35, How frequent to desert him, and at last 

To heap ingratitude on worthiest deeds ? 

17.— THE SOUL'S PROGRESS.— By Joseph Addison.— A. D. 1711. 

There is not, in my opinion, a more pleasing and triumphant con- 
sideration in religion, than this of the perpetual progress which the 
Soul makes towards the perfection of its nature, without ever arriving 
at a period in it. To look upon the Soul as going on from strength 
to strength, to consider that she is to shine forever with new aces- 
sions of glory, and brighten to all eternity ; that she will Ije still adding 
virtue to virtue, and knowledge to knowledge ; carries in it something 
wonderfully agreeable to that ambition which is natural to the mind 
of man. Nay, it must be a prospect pleasing to God himself, to see 
his Creation forever beautifying in his eyes, and drawing nearer to 
Him, by greater degrees of resemblance. 

Methinks this single consideration, of the progress of a flnite Spirit 
to perfection, will be sufficient to extinguish all envy in inferior na- 



APPENDIX.— SELECTIONS. 289 

tures, and all contempt in superior. — Tliat Clierubim which now 
appears as a God to a human Soul, knows very well that the period 
will come about in Eternity, when the human soul shall be as perfect 
as he himself now is : nay, when she shall look down on that degree 
of perfection, as much as she now falls short of it. It is true, the 
higher nature still advances, and by that means preserves his dis- 
tance and superiority in the scale of Being ; but he knows, how high 
soever the station is of which he stands possessed at present, the in- 
ferior Nature will at length mount up to it, and shine forth in the 
same degree of glory. ■• 

With what astonishment and veneration may we look into our own 
Souls, where there are such hidden stores of Virtue and Knowledge, 
such inexhaustible sources of perfection ? We know not yet what 
we shall be, nor will it ever enter into the heart of man to conceive 
the glory that will always be in reserve for him. The Soul consid- 
ered with its Creator, is like one of those mathematical lines that may 
draw nearer to another to all eternity without a possibility of touch- 
ing it ; and can there be a thought so transporting, as to consider our- 
selves in these perpetual approaches to him, who is not only the 
standard of perfection, but of happiness ! 

18.— HAPPINESS.— By Alexander Pope.- A. D. 1733. 

Oh Happiness ! our being's end and aim, 

Good, Pleasure, Ease, Content, whate'er thy name ; 

That something still which prompts the eternal sigh. 

For which we bear to live, or dare to die. 

Which still so near us, yet beyond us lies, 

O'erlooked, seen double, by the fool, and wise ! 

Plant of celestial seed ! if dropped below. 

Say, in what mortal soil thou deign' st to grow? 

Fair opening to some court's propitious shine, 

Or deep with diamonds in the flaming mine ? 

Twined with the wreaths Parnassian laurels yield. 

Or reaped in iron harvests of the field ? 

Where grows ? — where grows it not ? If vain our toil. 

We ought to blame the culture not the soil. 

Fixed to no spot is Happiness sincere ; 

'Tis nowhere to be found, or everywhere ; 

'Tis never to be bought, but always free. 

And fled from monarchs, St. John, dwells with thee. 

Ask of the learned the way ! The learned are blind ; 

This bids to serve, and that to shun mankind ; 

Some place the bliss in action, some in ease ; 

Those call it pleasure, and contentment these ; 



290 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR. 

Some sunk to "beasts, find pleasure end in pain ; 
Some swelled to gods, confess even virtue vain ; 
Or indolent, to eacli extreme they fall. 
To trust in everything, or doubt of all. 

19.— THE PASSIONS.— Collins.— 1747. 

1. When Music, heavenly maid, was young. 
While yet in early Greece she sung, 
* The Passions oft to hear her shell 

Thronged round her magic cell 
Exulting, trembling, raging, fainting. 
Possessed beyond the Muse's painting. 
By turns they felt the glowing mind 
Disturbed, delighted, raised, refined. 
Till once, 'tis said, when all were fired. 
Filled with fury, rapt, inspired. 
From the supporting myrtles round 
They snatched her instruments of sound ; 
And as they oft had heard apart 
Sweet lessons of her forceful art. 
Each (for madness ruled the hour) 
Would prove his own expressive power. 

2. First Fear his hand its skill to try 
Amid the chords bewildered laid. 
And back recoiled (he knew not why) 
E'en at the sound himself had made. 

3. Next Anger rushed ; his eyes, on fire. 
In lightning s owned his secret stings ; 
In one rude clash he struck the lyre. 
And swept with hurried hand the strings. 

4. With woful measures wan Despair — 
Low sullen sounds his grief beguiled ; 
A solemn, strange, and mingled air ; 
'Twas sad by fits ; — by starts 'twas wild. 

5. But thou, O Hope, with eyes so fair. 
What was thy delighted measure ? 
Still it whispered promised pleasure. 

And bade the lovely scenes at distance haiL 
Still would her touch the strain prolong ; 
And from the rocks, the woods, the vale. 
She called on Echo still through all her song 
And where her sweetest theme she chose. 



APPENDIX.— SELECTIONS. 291 

A soft responsive voice was heard at every close ; 

And Hope, enchanted, smiled, and waved lier golden hair ; — 

6. And longer had she sung ;— but with a frown 

Revenge impatient rose. 
He threw his blood stained sword in thunder down. 

And, with a withering look. 

The war-denouncing trumpet took, 
And blew a blast so loud and dread 
Were ne'er prophetic sounds so full of woe ; 

And ever and anon he beat 

The doubling drum with furious heat ; — 
And though sometimes, each dreary pause between. 

Dejected Pity at his side 

Her soul-subduing voice applied, 
Yet still he kept his wild unaltered mien. 
While each strained ball of sight seemed bursting from his 
head. 

7. Thy numbers, Jealousy, to nought were fixed ; — 

Sad proof of thy distressful state ! 
Of differing themes the veering song was mixed ; 
And now it courted Love ; now, raving, called on Hate. 

8. With eyes upraised, as one inspired, 
Pale Melancholy sat retired. 

And from her wild sequestered seat. 

In notes by distance made more sweet, 
Poured through the mellow horn her pensive soul ; 

And, dashing soft from rocks around. 

Bubbling runnels joined the sound. 
Through glades and glooms the mingled measure stole ; 

Or o'er some haunted stream with fond delay 

(Round a holy calm diffusing 

Love of peace and lonely musing), 

In hollow murmurs died away. 

9. But oh ! how altered was its sprightlier tone. 
When Cheerfulness, a nymph of healthiest hue. 

Her bow across her shoulder flung, 

Her buskins gemmed with morning dew, 
Blew an inspiring air, and dale and thicket rung, 
The hunter's call, to Faun and Dryad known ! 

The oak-crowned sisters and their chaste eyed Queen. 



292 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC OMAMMAM. 

Satyrs, and sylvan boys, were seen 
Peeping from forth tlieir alleys green. 
Brown Exercise rejoiced to hear ; 
And Sport leaped up, and seized his beechen spear. 

10. Last came Joy's ecstatic trial. 
He, with viny crown advancing. 
First to the lively pipe his hand addressed ; 
But soon he saw the brisk awakening viol 
Whose sweet entrancing voice he loved the best. 
They would have thought who heard the strain, 
They saw, in Tempe's vale her native maids, 

Amid the fatal sounding shades, 
To some unwearied minstrel dancing, 
While, as his flying fingers kissed the strings, 
Love framed with Mirth a gay fantastic round 
(Loose were her tresses seen, her zone unbound) ; 
And he, amidst his frolic play, — 
As if he would the charming air repay, — 
Shook thousand odors from his dewy wings. 

20.--PROCRASTINATION.— By Edward Young.— A. D. 1741. 

Be wise to-day ; 'tis madness to defer ; 
Next day the fatal precedent will plead ; 
Thus on, till wisdom is pushed out of life. 
Procrastination is the thief of time ; 
Year after year it steals till all are fled. 
And to the mercies of a moment leaves 
The vast concerns of an eternal scene. 
If not so frequent, would not this be strange ? 
That 'tis so frequent, this is stranger still. 

Of man's miraculous mistakes, this bears 
The palm, " That all men are about to live," 
Forever on the brink of being born ; 
All pay themselves the compliment to think 
They one day shall not drivel, and their pride 
On this reversion takes up ready praise ; 
At least their own ; their future selves applaud ; 
How excellent that life they ne'er will lead ! 
Time lodged in their own hands is Folly's vails ; 
That lodged in Fate's to wisdom they consign ; 
The thing they can't but purpose, they postpone. 
'Tis not in folly not to scorn a fool. 
And scarce in human wisdom to do more. 



APPEJS[DIX.-8ELEGTI0NS. 293 

All promise is poor dilatory man. 

And that through everj stage. When young, indeed. 

In full content we sometimes nobly rest, 

Unanxious for ourselves, and only wish, 

As duteous sons, our fathers were more wise. 

At thirty man suspects himself a fool ; 

Knows it at forty, and reforms his plan ; 

At fifty chides his infamous delay. 

Pushes his prudent purpose to resolve ; 

In all the magnanimity of thought 

Resolves, and re-resolves ; then dies the same. 

31.— ITALY.— By Oliver Goldsmith.— A. D. 1764. 

Far to the right, where Appenine ascends, 
Bright as the summer, Italy extends ; 
Its uplands sloping deck the mountain's side. 
Woods over woods in gay theatric pride ; 
While oft some temple's mouldering tops between. 
With venerable grandeur mark the scene. 
Could nature's bounty satisfy the breast. 
The sons of Italy were surely blest. 
Whatever fruits in different climes were found. 
That proudly rise, or humbly court the ground ; 
Whatever blooms in torrid tracts appear. 
Whose bright succession decks the varied year ; 
Whatever sweets salute the northern sky 
With vernal lives that blossom but to die ; 
These, here disporting, own the kindred soil, 
Nor ask luxuriance from the planter's toil ; 
While sea-born gales their gelid wings expand. 
To winnow fragrance round the smiling land. 
But small the bliss that sense alone bestows. 
And sensual bliss is all the nation knows. 
In florid beauty groves and fields appear, 
Man seems the only growth that dwindles here. 
Contrasted faults through all his manners reign : 
Though poor, luxurious ; though submissive, vain ; 
Though grave, yet trifiing ; zealous, yet untrue ; 
And even in penance planning sins anew. 
All evils here contaminate the mind. 
That opulence departed leaves behind ; 
For wealth was theirs, not far removed the date. 
When commerce proudly flourished through the state. 



294 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR. 

22.— RURAL SOUNDS.— By William Cowpbr.— A. I). 1785. 

Nor rural sights alone, but rural sounds, 

Exhilarate the spirit, and restore 

The tone of languid nature. Mighty winds 

That sweep the skirt of some far-spreading wood 

Of ancient growth, make music not unlike 

The dash of ocean on his winding shore, 

And lull the spirit wliile they fill the mind. 

Unnumbered branches waving in the blast, 

And all their leaves fast fluttering all at once, 

Nor less composure waits upon the roar 

Of distant floods, or on the softer voice 

Of neighboring fountains or of rills that slip 

Through the cleft rock, and chiming as they fall 

Upon loose pebbles, lose themselves at length 

In matted grass, that with a livelier green 

Betrays the secret of their silent course. — 

Nature inanimate displays sweet sounds. 

But animated nature sweeter still, 

To soothe and satisfy the human ear. 

Ten thousand warblers cheer the day, and one 

The livelong night ; nor these alone whose notes 

Nice-fingered art must emulate in vain, 

But cawing rooks, and kites that swim sublime 

In still repeated circles, screaming loud. 

The jay, the pie, and even the boding owl 

That hails the rising moon, have <:harms for me. 

Sounds inharmonious in themselves and harsh. 

Yet heard in scenes where peace forever reigns, 

And only there, please highly for their sake. 

23.— CHARACTER OF CHRIST.— William Paley. 

The Jews, whether right or wrong, had understood their prophe, 
cies to foretell the advent of a person who, by some supernatural as- 
sistance, should advance their nation to independence, and to a 
supreme degree of splendor and prosperity. This was the reigning 
opinion and expectation of the times. 

Now, had Jesus been an entliusiast, it is probable that his enthusi- 
asm would have fallen in with the popular delusion, and that, 
whilst he gave himself out to be the person intended by these predic- 
tions, he would have assumed the character to which they were 
universally supposed to relate. 

H»d he been an imposter, it was his business to have flattered the 



APPENDIX.— SELECTIONS. 295 

prevailing hopes, because these hopes were to be the instruments of 
his attraction and success. 

But, what is better tlian conjecture, is the fact that all the pre- 
tended Messiahs actually did so. We learn from Josephus that there 
were many of these. Some of them, it is probable, might be impos- 
tors who thought that an advantage was to be taken of the state of 
public opinion. Others, perhaps, were enthusiasts whose imagina- 
tion had been drawn to this particular object by the language and 
sentiments which prevailed around them. But, whether impostors 
or enthusiasts, they concurred in producing themselves in the char- 
acter which their countrymen looked for, — that is to say, as the re- 
storers and deliverers of the nation, in that sense in which restora- 
tion and deliverance were expected by the Jews. 

Why therefore Jesus, if he was, like them, either an enthusiast or 
impostor, did not pursue the same conduct as they did, in framing 
his character and pretensions, it will be found difficult to explain. 

24. —WATERLOO. — B ybon. 

1. There was a sound of revelry by night ; 
And Belgium's capital had gathered then 
Her beauty and her chivalry ; and bright 

The lamps shone o'er fair women and brave men ; — 

A thousand hearts beat happily ; — and when 

Music arose with its voluptuous swell. 

Soft eyes looked love to eyes which spake again ; 

And ail went merry as a marriage bell ; — 

But TiuBh ! hark ! — a deep sound strikes like a rising knell ! 

2. Did ye not hear it ? No ! — 'twas but the wind. 
Or the car rattling o'er the stony street. — 

On with the dance ! Let joy be unconfined. 

No sleep till morn, when youth and pleasure meet 

To chase the glowing hours with flying feet. — 

But hark ! — That heavy sound breaks in once more, 

As if the clouds its echo would repeat ; 

And nearer, clearer, deadlier than before — 

Arm ! — Arm ! — It is — it is-^the cannon's opening roar I 

3. Ah ! then and there was hurrying to and fro. 
And gathering tears, and tremblings of distress. 
And cheeks all pale, which but an hour ago 
Blushed at the praise of their own loveliness ; 
And there were sudden partings, such as press 
The life from out young hearts ; and choking sighs 
Which ne'er might be repeated. Who could guess 



296 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR. 

If ever more should meet those mutual eyes. 

Since upon night so sweet such awful morn could rise 1 

4. And there was mounting in hot haste ; the steed. 
The mustering squadron, and the clattering car. 
Went pouring forward with impetuous speed, 
And swiftly forming in the ranks of war ; 

And the deep thunder, — peal on peal afar, — 
And near, the beat of the alarming drum 
Roused up the soldier ere the morning star ; 
While thronged the citizens, with terror dumb. 
Or whispering with white lips ' ' The foe ! they come, they 
come ! " 

5. And Ardennes waves above them her green leaves, — 
Dewy with nature's tear-drops, — as they pass, 
Grieving, — ^if aught inanimate e'er grieves, — 

Over the unreturning brave, — alas ! 

Ere evening to be trodden like the grass 

Which now beneath them, but above shall grow 

In its next verdure, when this fiery mass 

Of living valor rolling on the foe, 

And burning with high hope, shall molder cold and low. 

6. Last noon beheld them full of lusty life ; 
Last eve in beauty's circle proudly gay ; 

The midnight brought the signal sound of strife ; 

The morn, the marshalling in arms ; — the day 

Battle's magnificently stern array ; 

The thunder cloudfe close o'er it, which when rent. 

The earth is covered thick with other clay 

Which her own clay shall cover, heaped and pent. 

Rider and horse, — friend, foe, — in one red burial blent. 

25.— THE LAMARCKIANS.— Hugh Miller. 

In this curious question, however, which it must be the part of 
future explorers in the geological field definitely to settle, the 
Lamarckian can have no legitimate stake. 

It is but natural that, in his anxiety to secure an ultimate retreat 
for his hypothesis, he should desire to see that darkness in which 
ghosts love to walk settling down on the extreme verge of the geo- 
logical horizon, and enveloping in its folds the first beginnings of 
life. — But even did the cloud exist, it is, if I may so express myself, 
on its nearer side, where there is light, — not within nor beyond it, 
where there is none, — that the battle must be fought. 

It is to Geology as it is known to be that the Lamarckian has ap- 



APPENDIX.— SELECTIONS. 297 

pealed,— not to Geology as it is not known to be. He has summoned 
into court existing witnesses ; and, finding their testimony unfavor- 
able, he seeks to neutralize their evidence by calling, from the ' ' vasty 
deep" of the unexamined and the obscure, witnesses that "wont 
come ", — that by the legitimate authorities are not known to exist, — 
and with whom he himself is, on his own confession, wholly unac- 
quainted, save in the old scholastic character of msre possibilities. 

The possible fossil can have no more standing in this controversy 
than the " possible Angel." 

He tells us that we have not yet got down to that base-line of all 
the fossiliferous systems at which life first began. Very possibly 
we have not ; but what of that ? He has carried his appeal to Geol- 
ogy as it is. He has referred his case to the testimony of the knoion 
witnesses ; for in no case can the unknown ones be summoned or 
produced. It is on the evidence of the known and the known only, 
that the exact value of his claims must be determined ; and his ap- 
peal to the unknown serves but to show how thoroughly he himself 
feels that the actually ascertained evidence bears against him 

The severe censure of Johnson on reasoners of this class is in no 
degree over-severe. "He who will determine," said the moralist, 
"against that which he knows, because there may be something 
which he knows not, — ^hethat can set hypothetical possibility against 
acknowledged certainty, — is not to be admitted among reasonable 
beings." 

26.— MAN AND NATUEE.— Mrs. E. B. Browning. 

A sad man on a summer day 

Did look upon the earih and say — - 

" Purple cloud, the hill top binding. 

Folded hills, the valleys wind in. 

Valleys, with fresh streams among you. 

Streams, with bosky trees along you, 

Trees, with many birds and blossoms. 

Birds, with music-trembling bosoms. 

Blossoms, dropping dews that wreathe you 

To your fellow flowers beneath you, 

Flowers that constellate on earth. 

Earth, that shakest to the mirth 

Of the merry Titan ocean, 

All his shining hair in motion ! 

Why am I thus the only one 

Who can be dark beneath the sun ? " 

But when the summer day was past, 

He looked to heaven and smile^ at last, 

Self-answered so — 



298 A COMPLETSr SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR. 

*' Because, O cloud, 
Pressing with tliy crumpled shroud 
Heavily on mountain top, — 
Hills, that almost seem to drop, 
Stricken with a misty death. 
To the valleys underneath, — 
Valleys, sighing with the torrent, 
Waters, streaked with branches horrent, 
Branchless trees, that shake your head 
Wildly o'er your blossoms spread 
Where the common flowers are found, 
Flowers, with foreheads to the ground. 
Ground, that shriekest, while the sea 
With his iron smiteth thee, — 
I am, besides, the only one 
Who can be bright wWiout the sun." 
27.— THE PURITANS.— T. B. Macaulay. 

The puritans were men whose minds had derived a peculiar char- 
acter from the daily contemplation of superior beings and eternal 
interests. Not content with acknowledging in general terms an 
overruling Providence, they habitually ascribed every event to the 
will of the Great Being for whose power nothing was too vast, — for 
whose inspection nothing was too minute. To know Him, to serve 
Him, to enjoy Him, was with them the great end of existence. 

They rejected with contempt the ceremonious homage which other 
sects substituted for the pure worship of the soul. 

Instead of catching occasional glimpses of the Deity through an 
obscuring vail, they aspired to gaze full on the intolerable bright- 
ness, and to commune with Him face to face. 

Hence originated their contempt for terrestrial distinctions. The 
difference between the greatest and the meanest of mankind seemed 
to vanish when compared with the boundless interval which separa- 
ted the whole race from Him on whom their eyes were constantly 

fixed. 

They recognized no title to superiority but His favor ; and, confi- 
dent of that favor, they despised all the accomplishments and all the 
dignities of the world. If they were unacquainted with the works 
of philosophers and poets, they were deeply read in the oracles of 
God. If their names were not found in the registers of heralds, 
they felt assured that they were recorded in the Book of Life. 
If their steps were not accompanied by a splendid train of menials, 
legions of ministering Angels had charge over them. Their palaces 
were houses not made with hands ; their diadems, crowns of glory 
which should never fade away. 



APPENBIX.—SELECTIONS. 299 

On tlie ricli and the eloquent, on nobles and priests, tliey looked 
down with contempt ; for they esteemed themselves rich in a more 
precious treasure, and eloquent in a more sublime language ; — nobles 
by the right of an earlier creation, and priests by the imposition of a 
mightier hand. 

28.— THE PASSING OF ARTHUR.— A. Tennyson. 

" But now farewell. I am going a long way 
With these thou seest, — if indeed I go, — 
(For all my mind is clouded with a doubt) 
To the island-valley of Avilion, 

5. Where falls not hail, or rain, or any snow. 
Nor ever wind blows loudly ; but it lies 
Deep-meadowed, happy, f?ir with orchard-lawns 
And bowery hollows crowned with summer sea. 
Where I will heal me of my grievous wound." 

10. So said he, and the barge with oar and sail 

Moved from the brink, like some full-breasted swan 
That, fluting a wild carol ere her death, 
Rufiies her pure cold plume, and takes the flood 
With swarthy webs. — Long stood Sir Bedivere 

15. Revolving many memories, till the hull 

Looked one black dot against the verge of dawn ; 
And on the mere the wailing died away. 

At length he groaned, and turning slowly clomb 
The last hard footstep of that iron crag ; 

20. Thence marked the black hull moving yet, and cried 
" He passes to be king among the dead. 
And after healing of his grievous wound 
He comes again ; but, — if he come no more, — 
Oh me ! be yon dark Queens in yon black boat, 

25. Who shrieked and wailed, — the three whereat we gazed 
On that high day, when, clothed with living light. 
They stood before his throne in silence, — friends 
Of Arthur, who should help him at his need?" 

Then from the dawn it seemed there came, but faint 

30. As from beyond the limit of the world. 
Like the last echo born of a great cry. 
Sounds, as if some fair city were one voice 
Around a king returning fromi his wars. 

Thereat once more he moved about, and clomb 

35. E'en to the highest he could climb, and saw. 
Straining his eyes beneath an arch of hand, 
Or thought he saw, the speck that bare the king 



300 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR. 

Down that long water, opening on the deep 
Somewhere far off, pass on and on, and go 
40. From less to less and vanish into light. 

And the new sun rose bringing the new year. 

29.— REASON AND TRUTH.— F. Wayland. 

1. In order to improve the reasoning powers, it is important that 
we always labor for truth. — Many persons, in order to acquire skill in 
debate, are in the habit of defending the true or false indiscriminately, 
— ^believing that they can cultivate their own understanding by mis- 
leading the understanding of others. 

2. A man may learn thus to embarrass and confound an antagonist ; 
but he does it at great sacrifice. 

By earnestly seeking for truth, and rejecting all sophistry, the 
mind acquires a tendency to move in the right direction. Chemists 
speak much of the affinities of various substances for each other. 
There is a natural affinity in the human mind for truth ; and this 
affinity is strengthened by seeking for it with an honest and earnest 
purpose. 

3. If we in our investigations inquire for nothing but truth, it 
spontaneously reveals itself to us. The whole history of philo- 
sophical discovery illustrates this remark. Hence nothing can be 
more unwise than to destroy the original delicacy of the faculty of 
reason by employing it indiscriminately in the support of truth or 
falsehood. We may thus gain the praise of acuteness or readiness 
in debate ; but we lose what is of incomparably greater consequence, 
— the instinctive love of truth, and the delicate discrimination be- 
tween truth and error. 

30.— SUNRISE ON THE HILLS.— H. W. Longfellow. 

1. I stood upon the hills, where heaven's wide arch 
Was glorious with the sun's returning march ; 
And woods were brightened ; and soft gales 
Went forth to kiss the sun-clad vales. 

2. The clouds were far beneath me ; — bathed in light. 
They gathered midway round the wooded height, 
And in their fading glory shone 

As hosts in battle overthrown. 

3. As many a pinnacle, with a shifting glance. 
Through the gray mist thrust up its shattered lance, 
And, rocking on the cliff, was left 

The dark pine, blasted, bare, and cleft,— 

4. The veil of cloud was lifted ; and below 
Glowed the rich valley ; and the river's flow 



APPENDIX.— SELECTIONS. 301 

Was darkened by tlie forest's shade, 
Or glistened in the white cascade, 

5. Where upward, in the mellow blush of day. 
The noisy bittern wheeled his spiral way. 

I heard the distant waters dash ; 
I saw the current wheel and flash ; 

6. And richly, by the blue lake's silver beach. 
The woods were bending with a silent reach. 
Then o'er the vale with gentle swell, 

The music of the village bell 

7. Came sweetly to the echo-giving hills ; 

• And the wild horn whose voice the woodland fills 
Was ringing to the merry shout 
That, faint and far, the glen sent out, 

8. Where, answering to the sudden shot, thin smoke 
Through thick -leaved branches from the dingle broke. 
If thou art worn, and hard beset 

With sorrows that thou wouldst forget, — 

9. If thou wouldst read a lesson that will keep 

Thy heart from fainting, and thy soul from sleep. 
Go to the woods and hills ! No tears 
Dim the sweet look that nature wears. 

31.— EVENING ON THE ST. LAWRENCE.— Sillim an. 

1. From the moment the sun is down, everything becomes silei 
on the shore which our windows overlook, and the murmurs of the 
broad St. Lawrence, — more than two miles wide immediately above 
us, and a little way to the right spreading to five or six miles in 
breadth, — are sometimes, for an hour, the only sounds that arrest 
our attention. 

3. Every evening since we have been here, black clouds and splen- 
did moonlight have hung over and embellished this tranquil scene ; 
and on two of these evenings we have been attracted to the window 
by the plaintive Canadian boat-song. 

3. In one instance it arose from a solitary voyager floating in his 
light canoe which occasionally appeared and disappeared on the 
sparkling river, and in its distant course seemed no larger than some 
sportive insect. 

4. In another instance a larger boat, with more numerous and less 
melodious voices, not indeed in perfect harmony, passed nearer to 
the shore, and gave additional life to the scene. A few moments 
after, the moon broke out from a throne of dark clouds, and seemed 
to convert the whole expanse of water into one vast sheet of glitter- 
ing silver ; and in the very brightest spot, at the distance of more 



302 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR. 

tlian a mile, again appeared a solitary boat, but too distant to admit 
of our bearing the song with which the boatman was probably sol- 
acing his lonely course. 

32.— APRIL.— J. G. Whittier. 

'Tis the noon of the spring-time, yet never a bird 

In the wind shaken elm or the maple is heard ; 

For green meadow-grasses wide levels of snow, 

And blowing of drifts where the crocus should blow ; 

Where wind-flower and violet, amber and white, 

On south-sloping brook-sides should smile in the light. 

O'er the cold winter-beds of their late- waking roots 

The frosty flake eddies, the ice-crystal shoots ; 

And, longing for light, under wind-driven heaps, 

Round the boles of the pine- wood the ground-laurel creeps, 

Unkissed of the sunshine, unbaptized of showers. 

With buds scarcely swelled, which should burst into flowers ! 

We wait for thy coming, sweet wind of the south ! 
For the touch of thy light wings, the kiss of thy mouth ; 
For the yearly evangel thou bearest from God, 
Resurrection and life to the graves of the sod ! 
Up our long river-valley, for da} s, have not ceased, 
The wail and the shriek of the bitter northeast, — 
Raw and chill, as if winnowed through ices and snow. 
All the way from the land of the wild Esquimau, — 
Until all our dreams of the land of the blest. 
Like that red hunter's, turn to the sunny southwest. 
O soul of the spring-time, its light and its breath. 
Bring warmth to this coldness, bring life to this death ; 
Renew the great miracle ; let us behold 
The stone from the mouth of the sepulchre rolled. 
And Nature, like Lazarus, rise, as of old ! 
Let our faith, which in darkness and coldness has lain, 
Revive with the warmth and the brightness again. 
And in blooming of flower and budding of tree. 
The symbols and types of our destiny see ; — 
The life of the spring-time, the life of the whole, 
And as sun to the sleeping earth, love to the soul. 

33.— THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE.— Noah Pouter. 

We contend not only that the Colleges have judged rightly in 
giving to the study of language the prominence which it receives, 
and that the Greek and Latin deserve the special preeminence which 
has been assigned them but that there are peculiar reasons why 



APPENDIX.— SELECTIONS. 303 

tliey should be even more thoroughly and earnestly cultivated than 
they have been. 

Our first position is that, for the years appropriated to school and 
College training, there is no study which is so well adapted to men- 
tal discipline as the study of language. We argue this from the 
fact that language is the chief instrument of intelligence. It is 
thought made visible and clear, not merely to the person to whom 
thoughts are to be conveyed, but to the person who thinks for and 
by himself. The earliest discriminations and memories to which we 
are tasked by nature, are those which are involved in the mastery 
of our mother tongue. 

It is true the observation required for the education of the eye and 
ear and in the control and discipline of the body, involves a multi- 
tude of " object lessons," and imposes much " object teaching," but 
it can scarcely be contended that this discipline of the senses requires 
either the culture or the discipline of the intellect, in the same sense 
as does that attention to language which is required in learning to 
speak and write the language which is first acquired. We assume, 
because it is not necessary to prove, that the most conspicuously in- 
tellectual of the various intellectual acts of infancy and childhood 
are exercised upon language. 

34.— LIBRARIES.— John G. Saxe. 

I love vast libraries, — revere the fame 

Of all the Ptolemies and each other name, — 

^^milius, Augustus, Crassus. Caesar, — all 

The old collectors, whether great or small, 

Who helped the cause of learning to advance,^ 

Trajan and Bodley, Charles the Wise of France, 

Kings, nobles, knights, who, anxious of renown 

Beyond the fame of garter, spur, or crown, 

And wisely provident against decay 

(Since parchment lives while marble melts away). 

Reared to their honor literary domes, 

And grew immortal in immortal tomes ! 
* * * * * * * 

Here e'en the sturdy democrat may find, 
Nor scorn their rank, the nobles of the mind. 
While kings may learn, nor blush at being shown. 
How Learning's patents abrogate their own. 
A goodly company and fair to see, — 
Royal plebeians, earls of low degree, 
Beggars whose wealth enriches every clime. 
Princes who scarce can boast a mental dime.-^ 



304 A COMPLETE SGIENTIFIG GRAMMAR. 

Crowd liere together like tlie quaint array 
Of jostling neighbors on a market day. 
Homer and Milton (can we call them blind ?), — 
Of godlike sight, the vision of the mind, — 
Shakespeare, who calmly looked creation through, 
" Exhausted worlds and then imagined new," 
Plato, the sage, so thoughtful and se.'ene, 
He seems a prophet by his heavenly mien, 
Shrewd Socrates, whose philosophic power 
Xantippe proved in many a trying hour. 
And Aristophanes Avhose humor run 
In vain endeavor to be-" cloud " the sun, 
Majestic JEschylus whose glowing page 
Holds half the grandeur of the Athenian stage, 
Pindar, whose odes, replete with heavenly fire, 
Proclaim the master of the Grecian lyre, 
Anacreon, famed for many a luscious line 
Devote to Venus and the god of wine 

I love vast libraries ; and yet there is a doubt 
If one be better with them or without. 
Unless he use them wisely, and indeed 
Knows the high art of what and how to read. 
At Learning's fountain it is sweet to drink ; 
But 'tis a nobler privilege to think ; 
And oft, from books apart, the thirsting mind 
May make the nectar which it cannot find, 
'Tis well to borrow from the good and great ; — 
'Tis wise to learn ; — 'tis godlike to create ! 

35.— READING.— Geo. S. Hillard. 

We cannot linger in the beautiful creations of inventive genius, or 
pursue the splendid discoveries of modern science, without a new 
sense of the capacities and dignity of human nature, which naturally 
leads to a sterner self-respect, to manlier resolves and higher aspira- 
tions. 

We cannot read the ways of God to man as revealed in the history 
of nations, — of sublime virtues as exemplified in the lives of great and 
good men, — without falling into that mood of thoughtful admiration, 
which, though it be but a transient glow, is a purifying and elevat- 
ing influence while it lasts. 

The study of history is especially valuable as an antidote to self- 
exaggeration. It teaches lessons of humility, patience, and submis- 
sion. When we read of realms smitten with the scourge of famine 
or pestilence, or strewn with the bloody ashes of war, — of grass 



APPENDIX.— SELECTIONS. 305 

growing in the streets of great cities, — of ships rotting at the 
wharves, — of fathers burying their sons, — of strong men begging 
their bread, — of fields nntilled, and silent workshops, and despairing 
countenances, — we hear a voice of rebuke to our own clamorous sor- 
rows and peevish complaints. We learn that pain and suffering and 
disappointment are a part of God's providence, and that no con- 
tract was ever yet made with man by which virtue should secure 
to him temporal happiness. 

In books, be it remembered, we have the best products of the best 
minds. We should any of us esteem it a great privilege to pass an 
evening with Shakespeare or Bacon, were such a thing possible ; but 
were we admitted to the presence of one of these illustrious men, we 
might find him touched with infirmity, or oppressed with weariness, 
or darkened with the shadow of recent trouble, or absorbed by intru- 
sive and tyrannous thoughts. To us the oracle might be dumb, and 
the light eclipsed. But when we take down one of their volumes, 
we run no such risk. Here we have their best thoughts embalmed 
in their best words, — immortal flowers of poetry wet with Castalian 
dews, and the golden fruit of wisdom that had long ripened on the 
bough before it was gathered. Here we find the growth of the 
choicest seasons of the mind, when mortal cares were forgotten, and 
mortal weaknesses were subdued, and the soul, stripped of its vani- 
ties and its passions, lay bare to the finest effluences of truth and 
beauty. 

We may be sure that Shakespeare never out-talked his Hamlec, 
nor Bacon his Essays. Great writers are indeed best known through 
their books. 

36 — THE PREACHER.— Cor. of Louisville Journal. 

1. The day was declining ; — the breeze in its glee 
Had left the fair blossoms to sing on the sea, 
As the sun in its gorgeousness, radiant and still, 
Dropped down like a gem from the brow of the hill ; 
One tremulous star in the glory of June 

Came out with a smile and sat down by the moon ; 

As she graced her blue throne with the pride of a queen. 

The smiles of her loveliness gladdened the scene. 

2. The scene was enchanting ; — in distance away 
Rolled the foam-crested waves of the Chesapeake bay, 

. While, bathing in moonlight, the village was seen 
With the church in the distance that stood on the green. 
The soft-sleeping meadows lay brightly enrolled 
With their mantles of verdure and blossoms of gold ; 



306 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

And the earth in her beauty, forgetting to grieve. 
Lay asleep in her bloom on the bosom of eve. 

3. A light-hearted child, I had wandered away 

From the spot where my footsteps had gamboled all day ; 

And free as a bird's was the song of my soul, 

As I heard the wild waters exultingly roll, 

While lightening my heart, as I sported along, 

With bursts of low laughter and snatches of song, 

I struck in the pathway half worn o'er the sod 

By the feet that went up to the worship of God. 

4. As I traced its green windings, a murmur of prayer 
With the hymn of the worshippers rose on the air ; 
And, drawn by the links of its sweetness along, 

I stood unobserved in the midst of the throng. 

For a while my young spirit still wandered about 

With the birds and the winds that were singing without ; 

But birds, waves and zephyrs were quickly forgot 

In one angel-like being that brightened the spot. 

5. In stature majestic, apart from the throng, 

He stood in his beauty, — the theme of my song. 

His cheek pale with fervor, — the blue orbs above 

Lit up with the splendors of youth and of love, — 

Yet the heart-glowing rapture that beamed from those eyes 

Seemed saddened by sorrow and chastened by sighs. 

As if the young heart in its bloom had grown cold. 

With its loves unrequited, its sorrows untold. 

6. Such language as his I may never recall ; 

But his theme was salvation, — salvation to all ; — 

And the souls of a thousand in ecstasy hung 

On the manna-like sweetness that dropped from his tongue. 

Not alone on the ear his wild eloquence stole ; 

Enforced by each gesture, it sunk to the soul. 

Till it seemed that an Angel had brightened the sod. 

And brought to each bosom a message from God. 

37.— LOVE OF FAME.— Washington Irving. 

1. Among the variety of principles by which mankind are actuated, 
there is one which I scarcely know whether to consider as springing 
from grandeur and nobility of mind, or from a refined species of van- 
ity and egotism. It is that singular, though almost universal, de- 
sire of living in the memory of posterity, — of occupying a share of 
the world's attention, — long after we have ceased to be susceptible 
either to its praise or censure. 



APPENDIX.— SELECTIONS. 307 

2. Most of tlie passions of the mind are bounded bj the grave. 
Sometimes, indeed, an anxious hope or trembling fear will venture 
beyond the clouds and darkness that rest upon our mortal horizon, 
and expatiate in boundless futurity ; but it is only this active love, 
of fame which steadily contemplates its fruition in the applause or 
gratitude of future ages, 

3. Indignant at the narrow limits which circumscribe existence, 
ambition is forever struggling to soar beyond them, — to triumph 
over space and time, and to bear a name, at least, above the inevit- 
able oblivion in which everything else that concerns us must be in- 
volved. It is ambition which prompts the patriot to his most heroic 
achievements, — which inspires the sublimest strains of the poet, 
and breathes ethereal fire into the productions of the painter and 
the sculptor. 

4. For this the monarch rears the lofty column, — the laureled 
conqueror claims the triumphal arch, — while the obscure individual 
who moved in a humble sphere asks but a plain and simple stone 
to mark his grave and bear to the next generation this important 
truth — that he was born, died, and was buried. 

5. It was this passion, too, which erected the vast Numidian piles 
whose ruins we have so often regarded with wonder, as the shades 
of evening, fit emblems of oblivion, gradually stole over and envel- 
oped them in darkness. It was this which gave being to those sub- 
lime monuments of Saracen magnificence which nod in moldering 
desolation as the blast sweeps over the deserted plains, — How futile 
are all our efforts to evade the obliterating hand of time ! 

38,— THE APPIAN WAY.— T, Buchanan Read. 

1. Here slumbers Rome among her broken tombs. 
With few inscriptions save the constant blooms 
By kindly nature on their altars cast, — 

A funeral highway stretching down the past. 

2. The dust of glory all around me lies, — 

The ashes of dead empires and their kings ; — 
I hear no voice save what from out the skies 
The lark shakes down from his invisible wings. 

3. Where slept a Caesar, now the owlet hides, 
A silent spirit till the day has fled ; 

Here gleams the lizard ; there the viper glides ; — 
The steadfast guests of the patrician dead. 

4. A funeral aspect fills the whole campaign ; 

Their tomb-like flocks the distant mounds disclose ; 
Like scattered blocks of granite on the plain, 
The dove-hued oxen Virgil sang repose. 



308 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR, 

5. All Rome to-day sits on tlie buried past ; 

Her later walls with sculptured blocks are flecked ; 
Tlie spoilers toiled for ages fierce and fast, 
Tben left the rest to ruin and neglect. 

6. And still beneath their tread what wonders lie ! 
Brave statues of the god-like and their gods. 
And columns that might corridor the sky ; 

Yet scarce a spade upturns the shallow clods ! 

39.— ANCIENT ARABIA — J. D. Baldwin. 

1. I can imagine nothing that would shed so great a light on the 
pre-historic ages as an accurate history of Arabia from the beginning 
of its civilization. Histories of that country were undoubtedly writ- 
ten before and after the time when Menes united Upper and Lower 
Egypt under one government ; for in that old time, so far away from 
us in the deepest antiquity, Arabia was the foremost country in the 
world. 

2. The people that originated the art of writing did not fail to have 
writers of their own annals. Nevertheless, their ancient history can- 
not now be produced ; for not only their own literature perished, but 
also that of the next succeeding nations ; and for more than twenty- 
five hundred years no other country with which our civilization is 
connected has been so completely withdrawn from the observation of 
what we call history. It has been a mystery, — an unreal country ; — 
and failure to see its historic importance has left many important 
problems of Ancient History without proper solution. 

3. And yet a weird influence of its great past is felt wnenever in- 
quiry turns to its ancient history ; and now and then a writer won- 
ders that ' ' a nation whose history ascends without interruption to 
so remote an origin, and whose name has been so celebrated, should 
have its political infancy shrouded in so thick a mist of doubt and 
oblivion." Even from this writer its grandest ages are hidden under 
that phrase " its political infancy." 

4. These ages are shrouded in doubt and oblivion partly because 
they are so remote. We consider Egypt and Chaldea very old ; but 
the culture and political organization of the Arabian Cushites were 
much older. They belong to what both Egyptians and Chaldeans 
regarded as antiquity. 

5. Time, that wastes all things human, and buries nations out of 
sight, has not spared the primeval history of this oldest of civilized 
peoples. Add to this that the distance from us in time of the 
beginnings of the Cushite civilization is so vast as to frighten the 
current chronologies into absolute lunacy ; and we shall cease to 



A PPEYDIX— SELECTION'S. 309 

wonder that the early history of Arabia has been so buried in obliv- 
ion, and so discredited by the chronologists that it has failed to com- 
mand much attention or even to be thought of as a reality. 

40.— THE RAIN.— D. F. MAcCiRTHY. 

1. The Rain, the Rain, the beautiful Rain, — 
Welcome, welcome it cometh again ; 

It cometh with green to gladden the plain 
And to waken the sweets in the winding lane. 

2. The Rain, the Rain, the beautiful Rain, — 
It fills the flowers to their tiniest vein 

Till they rise from the sod whereon they had lain — 
Ah me ! ah me ! like an army slain. 

3. The Rain, the Rain, the beautiful Rain, — 
Each drop is a link of a diamond chain 

That unites the earth, with its sin and its stain. 
To the radiant realm where God doth reign. 

4. The Rain, the Rain, the beautiful Rain, 
Each drop is a tear, not shed in vain, 
Which the angels weep for the golden grain 
All trodden to death on the gory plain ; 

5. For the Rain, the Rain, the beautiful Rain, 
Will waken the golden seeds again ; 

But ah ! what power will revive the slain 
Stark lying in death over fair Lorraine V 

6. 'Twere better far, beautiful Rain, 

That you swelled the torrent and flooded the main. 
And that Winter, with all his spectral train, 
Alone lay camped on the icy plain ; 

7. For then, O Rain, beautiful Rain, 

The snow-flag of peace were unfurled again ; 
And a truce would be rung in each loud refrain 
Of the blast replacing the bugle's strain. 

8. Then welcome, welcome, beautiful Rain, 
Thou bringest flowers to the parched up plain. 
Oh ! for many a frenzied heart and brain 
Bring peace and love to the world again. 

41.— THE MAYFLOWER.— Edward Everett. 

1. Methinks I see it now, that one solitary adventurous Vessel, 
the Mayflower of a forlorn hope, freighted with the prospects of 



310 A COMPLETE SGIENTIFIG GRAMMAR. 

a future State, and bound across tlie unknown sea. I behold it pur- 
suing, with a thousand misgivings, the uncertain, the tedious voy- 
age. Suns rise and set ; and weeks and months pass ; and winter 
surprises them on the deep, but brings them not the sight of the 
wished-for shore, I see them now scantily supplied with provisions, 
crowded almost to suffocation in their ill-stored prison, delayed by 
calms, pursuing a circuitous route, and now driven in fury before 
the raging tempest on the high and giddy waves. 

2. The awful voice of the storm howls through the rigging ; the 
laboring masts seem straining from their base ; the dismal sound of 
the pumps is heard ; the ship leaps, as it were, madly from billow 
to billow ; the ocean breaks, and settles with ingulfing floods over 
the floating deck, and beats with deadening weight against the stag- 
gering vessel. I see them, escaped from these perils, pursuing their 
all but desperate undertaking, and landed at last, after a five months' 
passage, on the ice-clad rocks of Plymouth, — weak and weary from 
the voyage, poorly armed, scantily provisioned, depending on the 
charity of their ship-master for a draught of beer on board, drinking 
jiothing but water on shore, without shelter without means, sur- 
rounded by hostile tribes ! 

3. Shut now the volume of history ; and tell me, on any principle 
of human probability, what shall be the fate of this handful of ad- 
venturers ? Tell me, man of military science, in how many months 
were they all swept off by the thirty savage tribes enumerated 
within the early limits of New England ? Tell me, politician, how 
long did this shadow of a colony, on which your conventions and 
treaties had not smiled, languish on the distant coast ? 

4. Student of history, compare for me the baffled projects, the 
deserted settlements, the abandoned adventurers, of other times ; 
and find the parallel of this. Was it the winter's storm beating upon 
the houseless heads of women and children ; was it hard labor and 
spare meals ; was it disease ; was it the tomahawk ; was it the deep 
malady of a blighted hope, a ruined enterprise, and a broken heart 
aching, in its last moments, at the recollection of the loved and left 
beyond the sea ; was it some or all of these united that hurried this 
forsaken company to their melancholy fate ? 

5. And is it possible that neither of these causes, — that not all 
combined were able to blast this bud of hope ? Is it possible that 
from a beginning so feeble, so frail, so worthy not so much of ad- 
miration as of pity, there has gone forth a progress so steady, a 
growth so wonderful, a reality so important, a promise yet to be ful- 
filled so glorious ? 



APPENDIX.-SELEGTIONS. 311 

43.— SHORT WORDS.— J. Addison Alexander. 

Think not that strength lies in the big round word, 
Or that the brief and plain must needs be weak. 
To whom can this be true who once has heard 
The cry for help, the tongue that all men speak 
6. When want or woe or fear is in the throat, 
So each word gasped out is like a shriek 
Pressed from the sore heart, or a strange wild note 
Sung by some fay or fiend ? There is a strength 
Which dies if stretched too far or spun too fine, 

10. Which has more height than breadth, more depth than length. 
Let but this force of thought and speech be mine. 
And he that will may take the sleek fat phrase 
Which glows and burns not, though it gleam and shine,— 
Light, but not heat, — a flash without a blaze. 

15. Nor is it mere strength that the short word boasts. 
It serves of more than fight or storm to tell, — 
The roar of waves that clash on rock-bound coasts, — 
The crash of tall trees when the wild winds swell, — 
The roar of guns, — the groans of men that die 

20. On blood-stained fields. It has a voice as well 
For them that far ojff on their sick beds lie, — 
For them that weep, — for them that mourn the dead, — 
For them that laugh and dance and clap the hand, — 
For joy's quick step as well as grief's low tread. 

25. The sweet plain words we learnt at first keep time. 
And, though the theme be sad or gay or grand, 
With each, with all, these may be made to chime 
In thought or speech or song or prose or rhyme. 

43.— NEUTRALITY.— Chas. Francis Adams. 

1. This great victory is won ; and for the future no question will 
ever be raised of the right of the United States to remain at peace, 
no matter what parties may choose the fearful work of mutual de- 
struction. May I not venture to use the words of an old poet ? 

" And now time's whiter series is begun. 
Which in soft centuries shall smoothly run ; 
Those clouds that overcast your morn shall fly 
Dispelled to furthest corners of the sky ; 
Our nation, with united interests blest. 
Not now content to poise, shall sway the rest." 

2. Yes, it shall * * sway the rest " ; but only by presenting an ex- 
ample of adhering, in the day of its great power, to the same pure 
and honorable policy which it proclaimed and defended when rela- 



312 A COMPLETE SGIENTIFIG GRAMMAB, 

tively weak. Yes, and still more by developing tlie system which 
has been inaugurated, as far as it may be carried, to secure peace to 
combatants everywhere. The Convention of Paris in 1856 made 
great steps toward it ; but it wanted one which Mr. Marcy went too 
far in making a condition to our signing that instrument. 

3. Thus our national testimony has failed to be recorded upon a 
paper so honorable to the progress of the present age The time 
had not arrived for that more magnificent advance in the career of 
humanity ; but brilliant will be the fame of the statesman who may 
have it to declare that through his agency so great a step shall have 
been taken. 

4. Nay, and still beyond that. His province it may be to make 
yet other moral conquests, — to disclaim the right of neutrals to sup- 
ply instruments of war to either belligerent, — to expand the privi- 
leges of the sea so that no piratical cruiser shall be permitted to 
stroll over the ocean in search of plunder from the unarmed and 
defenseless on the plea that he is a privateer. 

5. And even beyond that again, that no innocent unarmed private 
voyager of any country, found on any ocean of the globe, shall take 
harm to himself or his property merely from the fact that he belongs 
to a belligerent nation. 

6. These be thy victories, Peace, before which the roar of the 
booming cannon, the yell of savage combat, the execrations of the 
dying, the groans of the wounded, and the shriek of the widow and 
the orphan, all melting into harmony, into blessings, shall be made 
to ascend as sweet incense to the skies. 

44.— BOUCHER.— T. Nield. 

1. Into the park, on a festive day, 
Vienna turned out its people gay ; 
Like bees at swarming time were they. 

2. And hungry and friendless ones were there 
Whose very looks were a silent prayer. 
Amid the pleasures, for Lazarus's share. 

3. Among the rest, on that festive day, 
Was a war-scarred soldier, old and gray ; 
And he was sad as the crowd was gay. 

4. On a violin, 'neath an old tree's shade, 
The battle tunes of his youth he played ; 
And a kind of food for his heart they made ; 

5. But they had no charm for the tide of men. 
Still fresh to him, they were stale to them 
As he played them o'er and o'er again. 



APPENDIX.— SELECTIONS. 313 

6. Tliougli lie had once been brave and bold, 
And gave of his blood while some gave gold. 
They recked not now that he was poor and old. 

7. As the sun was sinking in the west, 

So the hopes were sinking in his breast, 
As his weary arms he dropped to rest. 

8. A stranger who, in the crowd so gay. 
Had listened a while that festive day 
Now asked the reason he ceased to play. 

9. " For my country I gave one leg, you see ; 
And I hold my bow with fingers three ; 

So I'm tired and hungry too," quoth he. 

10. Said the stranger " Take this gold as pay 
For the loan of your instrument, I pray. 
Now watch the hat ; and I will play." 

11. So saying, the instrument up he threw. 
And o'er its arch the slim bow drew, 
When out the tremulous music flew. 

13. At last was a necromancer found 

Who a spirit called up at every sound, 
That charmed the spirits of all around. 

13. And, while tickling still the nervous strings. 
The music fluttered with restless wings, 
And made them think of unearthly things. 

14. And the veteran, through that wondrous hour. 
Was spell-bound by the magic power. 
While money rained like a thunder shower. 

15. " Now empty your hat," the people cried ; 

And money still rained from every side. 
Oh ! that was a freshet in fortune's tide. 

16. When the finale trembled from the bow — 
"God bless the emperor Francis," — oh ! 
Men's hats flew thick as winter's snow. 

17. " Who is the stranger ? " asked the crowd, — 
" Who ? " and their voices grew more loud 
As he dropped the instrument and bowed. 

18. Patricians mingled with plebeians there ; 
And the voice of one rang through the air, 

" The player you've heard is the great Boucher." 



314 A COMPLETE SGIENTIFIG GRAMMAR. 

19. Three cheers for Boucher gave the crowd, 
That burst so suddenly and so loud 

It thundered from a living cloud. 

20. Happy was one with his store of gold ; 
But happier he, if the truth were told. 
For whom those lusty cheers outrolled. 

21. The pleasure such actions yield is pure ; 
And all should know, for naught is truer, 
That they are rich who help the poor. 

45.— HIGHER ANTICIPATIONS.— Wendell Phillips. 

1. I confess the pictures of the mere industrial value of the Union 
make me profoundly sad. I look as, beneath the skillful pencil, 
trait after trait leads to glowing life, and ask at last ' ' Is this all ? 
Where are the nobler elements of national purpose and life ? Is 
this the whole fruit of ages of toil, sacrifice, and thought, — those 
cunning fingers, — the overflowing lap, — labor vocal on every hill- 
side, and commerce whitening every sea? All the dower of one 
haughty overbearing race, the zeal of the Puritan, the faith of the 
Quaker, a century of colonial health, and then this large civilization, 
— does it result only in a workshop, — fops melted in baths and per- 
fumed, and men grimed with toil ? — Raze out, then, the eagle from 
our banner ; and paint instead Niagara used as a cotton-mill ! 

2. Oh no ! Not such the picture my glad heart sees when I look 
forward. Once plant deep in the national heart the lov^e of right ; — 
let there grow out of it the firm purpose of duty ; and then from the 
higher plane of manhood we can put aside, on the right hand and 
on the left, these narrow, childish, and mercenary considerations. 

" Leave to the soft Campanian 
His baths and his perfumes ; 
Leave to the sordid race of Tyre 
Their dyeing vats and looms ; 
Leave to the sons of Carthage 

The rudder and the oar ; 
Leave to the Greek his marble nymph 
And scrolls of wordy lore ; " — 
but for us, the children of a purer civilization, the pioneers of a 
Christian future, — it is for us to found a Capitol whose corner-stone 
is Justice, and whose top-stone is Liberty ; — wiihin the sacred pre- 
cinct of whose Holy of Holies dwelleth One who is no respecter of 
persons, but hath made of one blood all nations of the earth to serve 
him. 

3. Crowding to the shelter of its stately arches, I see old and younfir , 



APPENDIX.— SELECTIONS. 3I5 

learned and ignorant, rich and poor, native and foreign, Pagan, Chris- 
tian, and Jew, — black and white, in one glad, harmonious, triumph- 
ant procession ! 

" Blest and thrice blest the Roman 

Who sees Rome's brightest day ; — 
Who sees that long victorious pomp 

Wind down the sacred way, 
And through the bellowing Forum, 
And round the suppliant's Grove, 
Up to the everlasting gates 
Of Capitolian Jove ! " 

46.— FARMERS.— H. W. Parker. 

1. The American Farmer, son of the Sun, 
Bronzed with a glow from its glory won. 
As free as the air it is heaven to inhale, 
And strong as the steeds of the prairie gale. 
Lord of his castle and broad domain, — 
The herd his vassals, the flock his train. 
And rich in the coin his granaries hoard. 
He sits at the head of his bountiful board. 
And laughs at the crowded world afar 
Buzzing with ceaseless commercial war. 

2. Behold him at morn ! — His polished plow 
Traces dark lines with his silver prow. 
Writing the verse in alluvial mold 

The summer shall print in letters of gold. 
And set to the trill of the oriole's tune. 
Behold him at rest in the languid noon, 
Stretched on the grass and cooled by the breeze. 
His kingly pavilion the glistening trees ! 
Behold him at eve ! — The evening his own. 
Home joys are his that to few are known. 
The russet is brought from his last year's store ; 
His fruity-faced children play on the floor ; 
And his wife, her cheek like orchard bloom, 
Is the crown, the queen of the cheerful room. 

3. That mine of riches, — that farmer's wife ! 
How busy and happy and proud her life ! 
From her pans she ' ' pans out " her rolls of gold ; 
And her eggs are all ' ' nest-eggs " of wealth untold ; 
It tries not her patience to try out her lard ; 
And her lot, like h6r bread, is never hard ; 



316 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC ORAMMAR. 

She knits her stockings, but never her brows ; — 
Gives the fowls a dressing, but not her spouse. 
Oh ! busy and happy and proud the life 
The farmer lives, and the farmer's wife. 

4. Is the picture too fair, too rosy its glow ? 
Tell us thou husbandman, John or Joe ! 
What are thy musings the livelong day, 
Or home returned in the twilight gray 1 
What honest pride, what bliss of health, — 
Of peace, content, what conscious wealth ? 
What converse with Nature ? What hidden lore, 
Wiser than books, is it thine to explore ? 

What science untaught, in schools unheard, 
Of soil and plant, or of beast and bird ? 

5. John — who is one of the rarer kind. 
Sunny in heart and searching of mind. 
Replies in few words : " Ah ! well do I know 
Life's flowers and briers commingling grow ; 
And man may pluck, if he so desires. 

The flowers alone, or only the briers. 
One thorn there is — I feel it in truth, — 
The lack of a studious habit in youth." 
Thus worthy John. Is he right ; — is it so ? 
Come give us thy mind, thou frequent Joe. 

6. " Wall now I guess," Joe answering says, 
" A ruther hard time on't the farmers liez ; 
There's nuthin to think on but work and eat ; 
And arter his chores a man is dead beat ; 

An' there's oilers bad luck a feller frets, — 
High price an' low price, notes an' debts, 
An' breachy critters an' losin' a hoss. 
An' somehow the gain's no more'n the loss. 
I wuz down with the rheumatiz May an' June ; 
An' the seed wa'n't sown the right o' the moon. 
The sheep's got foot-rot ; an' market is down ; 
An' wheat I kept, hopin' prices come 'roun' ; 
An' wife she is kind o' droopin' jest now. 
An' the children took sick, I can't tell how ; 
I'm sartin we giv 'em plenty o' pills ; 
But a bilious fever brings doctor's bills. 
Wall, honest folks — they must oilers work ; 
It's only your village sharpers can shirk." 



APPENDIX.— SELECTIONS. 317 

7. Thus Joe discourses. Alas ! How the real 
Kicks over the pail of the creamy ideal ! 

If Joe were honest, there still would be 
Some miilk remaining for poetry's tea ; 
But he keeps, 'tis said, the strippings apart. 
When he vends his milk by the pint or quart ; 
There's a tallow faced hue in his butter and lard ; 
And his four-foot wood is cut — by the yard ! 

8. Is it then but a dream, — this son of the soil. 

Noble and wise in his primitive toil ? 
Nay, hither shall come and hence shall go 
Youth who their earnest work shall know, — 
The artizan's son and the farmer's boy, — 
Whose fathers calling is honor and joy. 
In mind and muscle strong and skilled. 
By them our ideal shall gradually be filled ; 
The woodman's name be a name of pride. 
By knowledge and character glorified. 

47.— SHALLOW CULTURE.— H. A. Thompson. 

1. One of the peculiarities of the American people, especially the 
American youth, is the ambition to do things quickly, — not well. 
Our driving must be that of Jehu, the son of Nimshi ; it must be 
done furiously. We are not willing to sow the seed, and wait pa- 
tiently, in faith, for the summer's sun and genial rains to mature the 
expected crop. 

2. This desire for haste, — ^this furious driving, — has seriously in- 
terfered with our educational processes. If it were possible, by any 
forcing process, any legerdemain, to grow the form of an oak in a 
single night, it would not be an oak. There must be a slow solid 
growth, — the proper unfolding of its nature. The storms of years 
must beat upon it ; and its fiber must become hard and strong ; other- 
wise it will not be the oak. 

3. That there was no royal road to learning was discovered by the 
ancients ; but some of us have yet to learn that there is no short cut 
to all those graces and traits and powers which characterize the schol- 
ar. — That there are minds which develop more rapidly than others is 
true ; but these, as all others, must be developed in accordance %vith 
their own individual n&,tures. 

4. I am sorry to know that there are institutions of learning pan- 
dering to this diseased public sentiment. Instead of being educators 
of the public mind, helping to form a healthy public sentiment, they 
pander to its weakness. Some of our Commercial Colleges make 
Book-keepers in three months, and the best of Bankers in six, — not 



318 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR. 

.knowing, or not caring to know, that the science of banking is a 
study for a life-time. 

5. Some of these institutions, despising the slower and surer pro- 
cesses of College training, will turn out accomplished teachers in six 
weeks, and make Homers and Ciceros in a few months ! " Why, 
then," say they, in vigorous appeals to unthinking young men and 
ignorant parents, "send your brothers and sisters and sons and 
daughters to College, to squander six years of this life in pursuit of 
a College course, when we can give you the same instruction and the 
same culture, and send you out with the same tastes and the same 
ability in a few short months ? " 

6. And, strange to say, many of these parents, and as many of 
these young people, are deceived by such shallow pretense ; and time 
and money are squandered in the pursuit of that wl lich satisfieth not. 
The thing promised is simply an impossibility until the laws of the 
human mind are entirely changed. If a young man seeks scholar- 
ship, he wants the best training he can get. If he means to make a 
sham of himself and of his life, — pretending to be what he is not, 
and to have what he does not possess, it matters little how short his 
course or how furiously he drives. 

7. A gentleman once visited one of these short-cut and time-saving 
institutions where students received the highest classical culture in 
a few months ; and, on searching for the Professor of Greek, in whom 
resided the wonderful skill to do these great things which all Colleges 
had failed to do, he found a young gentleman who spent his unoccu- 
pied hours in preparing himself to enter the freshman class at Yale 

College ! 

48.— SCIENCE.— G. T. Day, 1875. 

Science is not something to be sneered at or to be dreaded. Its 
work is vast, varied, wonderful, beneficent. It is weighing the plan- 
ets, analyzing the sun, making each dumb and stony-lipped mountain 
eloquent and impressive ; it is filling the water-drop with teeming 
life, and showing us the germ of a world in an atom ; it is resolving 
our coal-fields into sunbeams, and showing the oneness of heat and 
motion , it is giving the winds a captain, and making the lightning 
man's docile ser\ ant ; it is bridging the ages with solid facts, and 
bringing what seemed the most wayward and wandering phenomena 
within the embrace of law ; it is illustrating the majesty of man, 
and interpreting the infinity of God. It is not for Christian men to 
denounce it as the soul's greatest peril. Rather it should be heard 
with candor by the church, and welcomed as an ally by the pulpit. 
If it fairly disproves a cherished opinion, let the opinion go. What 
do any of us want of a falsehood, but to hasten with it to burial ? If 
it shows that truth really requires us to modify our creed, — no matter 



APPENDIX,— NOTES. 319 

whether that creed was built up by our own hands, or inherited from 
the earlier centuries, — we may well thank it for having taught us. 
It may reach and open sepulchers where great truths lie buried, — 
roll away the stone, and set them free to walk the earth a& ministers 
of light and givers of blessing. 



CHAPTER IV.-NOTES. 

NOTE 1.— INTRODUCTION, p. XV. 

Phonetics. — The original and fundamental idea of Alphabetical 
Writing is to use one letter, and no more, to represent each elemen- 
tary sound of the language. Hence an Alphabet should have just 
as many letters as the language to be represented by it has sounds. 
The Ancient languages were written on this plan ; and some Modern 
ones are so written. But in English, the fundamental idea is com- 
pletely lost ; and the spelling is entirely arbitrary. 

The result is that the mere spelling of words becomes a distinct 
branch of study, to which is devoted, on an average, not less than 
one-quarter of the time spent by children in school ; and after all, 
it is not mastered by one in fifty of them. The cost of learning to 
spell, even very poorly, is, in the United States, not less then a hun- 
dred millions of dollars a year ; and every person who gets a thor- 
ough education spends from three to Jive years of time and labor on 
this one thing. That is to say the burden of our orthography is 
greater than the burden of our National Debt ! 

This monstrous tax upon the people is entirely useless and unneces- 
sary, and might easily be avoided by the simple means of adopting a 
complete Alphabet and returning to the original common-sense prin- 
ciple of writing words as they are pronounced. 

Spelling, in that case, would no longer be a distinct branch of 
study ; all the time and labor and expense of it would be saved ; the 
labor of learning to read would be reduced by three-fourths ; and 
progress in other studies would be greatly facilitated. Hence mil- 
lions of the lower classes would be enabled to become at least par- 
tially educated, instead of remaining in utter ignorance, as at pres- 
ent ; and the higher classes would become much more thoroughly 
educated. 

The late war checked for a time a movement which had made 
considerable progress towards the reformation of English Orthogra- 
phy ; but the reformation must eventually be accomplished. 

Several objections are often urged against the proposed change ; — 
and sometimes by those who ought to knov.^ better. 

1. It is said that if words are spelled as they are pronounced, we 



320 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR. 

shall be unable to distinguish words of the same sound but different 
meanings, as ''rain", "rein", "reign", &c. 

The loss, however, if there should be any in this respect, would 
be more than made up in that class of words now spelled alike but 
pronounced differently as "bow" and "bow"; "mow" and 
"mow"; "gill" and "gill", &c. ; for each pair of words of this 
class, — more numerous than the other, — would then be spelled dif- 
ferently ; and both the different pronunciation and different meaning 
would be indicated. Again, if the words in question were to be 
spelled alike, we should have no more trouble in distinguishing 
them in reading than we now have when we hear them spoken ; but 
we never require the speaker to spell these words, that we may 
know whether he means "rain," "rein," or "reign," &c. More- 
over, we should have much less reason to apprehend difficulty from 
this class of words than from others that we never thought of fear- 
ing ; for not more than/oz^r different meanings are in any case dis- 
tinguished by different spellings ; but a single word, without differ- 
ence of spelling, frequently has from twenty to fifty different mean- 
ings, — all of which are readily distinguished, both in writing and 
speaking, — as "good", "break", "take", "stand", &c,, &c. 

2. It is said that the proposed changes will destroy the analogies 
of words so that their relationship to each other cannot be perceived, 
and that an important means of ascertaining the meaning of words 
will thus be lost. 

This objection is quite as futile as the other, as may easily be 
shown. If, to the classical scholar, the advantages of analogies 
were twice as great as they were ever thought to be, and if tile re- 
form would destroy them all, yet the reform ought not to be de- 
layed a moment on that account ; for these advantages are only 
available to the better educated, while the toiling millions who can 
derive no benefit from such " analogies " are most cruelly taxed for 
them. 

Classical scholars hardly constitute a thousandth part of those who 
have to learn the English language in some way, and it is certainly 
a shame that nine hundred and ninety nine persons should be so 
enormously taxed in order that one, who is more highly educated, 
may enjoy the luxury of " analogies." 

The case, however, is really very different from what is supposed ; 
and the required changes, instead of being detrimental to the classi- 
cal scholar, would be very greatly to his advantage. Analogies 
would not be destroyed nor obscured, except in a few cases ; but 
thousands of analogies, now hidden under our false orthography, 
would reappear and become available. 

If *' laugh" should be spelled "laf", then "laughter" would be 



APPENBIX.-NOTES. 321 

spelled "lafter" ; and the analogy is quite as clear between " laf " 
and "lafter", as beween "laugh" and "laughter". If "philoso- 
phy " should be spelled ' ' filosofi ", although it would be made to 
differ from the Latin and French forms, yet it would be made to 
agree with its original Greek form, in which there is no " ph", and 
also with the Italian and Spanish forms. So also with all that class 
of words in which " ph " occurs. They would also be made to con- 
form to the " analog?/ " of the words "offer", "differ", "false", 
" fame ", " fallacious"," face ", " ferocious " &c. , &c., which are also 
from the Greek, but are spelled with "f " instead of " ph ". This 
single change, then, of " ph " into " f " would bring to light hun- 
dreds, if not thousands, of " Analogies" which are now obscured, 
and would, therefore, confer a great benefit upon the student of 
Language. 

Again, if all those words in which " th" occurs were to be spelled 
with a single letter instead of the " th ", then thousands more of 
obscured Analogies would become clearly manifest ; for almost every 
one of these words is derived either from the Greek or from the 
Anglo-Saxon ; and in neither of those languages is there any such 
awkward combination as " th " ; but the sound which we indicate 
by " th " is, in each, invariably represented by a single letter. 

If "could" should be written without an "1" its relation to its 
primitive would not be obscured, but made manifest ; for the original 
word had no " 1 ". It has been foisted into the word through some- 
one's blunder. Such also is the case with the "b" in the word 
"numb", the "1" in "stalk", the "b" in " dumb", the "t" before 
"ch" in "witch", and "stitch", and "thatch", and "hatch", &c., 
&c., and the "k" in "wreck" and " rack", &c. If the "k" were 
to be omitted from " knee " and 'knuckle ", their relation to " neck " 
and "nod", which have the same origin, would be made more ap- 
parent. The proposed reform would also make evident the relation- 
ship of "sprite" and "sprightly", "inveigh" and "convey", 
"noun "and "renown", "deceit "and "receipt", "spacious" and 
" expatiate ", " fancy " and " phantom ", &c., &c. 

These are a few of the examples which might be cited in this con- 
nection ; — but it may be well to notice more specifically the changes 
which are required. 

In the first place, there are three or four thousand words in the 
language which would not be changed at all in making the proposed 
reformation. 

Secondly, there are about twenty thousand words in each of which 
it would only be required to change the form of a letter. Evidently 
this cannot destroy " analogies ". 

Thirdly, there are nearly thirty thousand words in which the only 



322 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR. 

additional change required would be the substitution, in each, of a 
single letter for a digraph or trigraph (i. e. , for a group of two or 
three letters representing a single sound). Any one having the 
slightest knowledge of Etymology must see that this cannot destroy 
" Analogies". 

Fourthly, there are eight or nine thousand words in which the 
only change requisite in addition to those already mentioned would 
be the omission, in each, of a final "e ". Now, since the final " e " 
is, in most cases, a mere orthographical expedient to indicate the 
sound of a preceding vowel, and since it has already been rejected, 
without any inconvenience, from the majority of the words in which 
it was formerly used, it is certainly reasonable to suppose that its 
entire disuse can neither destroy nor obscure any " Analogies ". 

In the fifth place, there are about two hundred words in which, 
besides the foregoing, it would be necessary to change the order of 
the letters " wh ", so as to write " liwen " instead of " when " &c. ; 
but as these words were formerly written in this icay, the effect 
would be not to obscure, but to make evident their relations to their 
primitives. 

Sixthly, it would be necessary, in a very few words, to insert a 
" w" or a"y" at the beginning; but this can have no important 
bearing upon ' • Analogier^ ' . 

These Classes include the great body of words belonging to the 
language ; but finally, in the Seventh place, there are some words 
from which, besides the above mentioned changes, it would be neces- 
sary to drop what are called " silent letters ", as " w " from " wrap ", 
"h"from "ghost", ''gh" from " thought", " k " from " knife ", 
" g" from "gnat ", " p " from "pneumatic ", " n " from " column ", 
"ph" from " phthisic "," ch " from " yacht "," 1 " from "half", 
" rh " from " myrrh ", " t " from " eclat ", " d " from " stadtholder ", 
" m " from " mnemonic ", " c " from " indict ", " b " from '• doubt ", 
"s" from "isle", "e" from "worked", " ps " from " corps", &c. 

In some of these cases the silent letters are of some little service to 
the Etymologist in tracing the origin and history of a word ; but to 
the ordinary learner of the language, they are only a grievous imped- 
iment ; and sometimes they are a stumbling-block to the advanced 
student, as in the case of the "h" in "ghost", which hinders one 
from perceiving the relationship of the word to its parent "gast", 
its grandparent "gest", and its cousins ' geest" and " geist ", &c. 
Moreover, to drop these silent letters from the words in which they 
occur would only be doing what has already been done with thou- 
sands of words of the same kind without any perceptible disadvan- 
tage, as in dropping the " ve " in " hast ", the " gh " in " not ", the 
"1" in "such", the "f " in "head", the "h" in see", the "w" in 



APPENDIX.— N0TE8. 323 

"sister", the "li " in ''loaf ", in " load", and in " rap ",— the " g " 
in "loin", the "h" in "lean", the " s " in " hotel", the "c" in 
"feat", the " g" in "like" and "paint",— the "h" in "lot", 
" lank ",^" loud", "last", and "ready",— the "l"in "bag", the 
"h" in " lord "," lady ", "nice", "nut", "raven", and "it",— 
the "w"in "lisp", "root", and " so ",— the "1" in "which" 
" each " and " much ",— the " g " in " if ", " he", and " written ",~ 
the "s" in "daffodil ", the " v" and the " c" in "lark ", &c., &c., 
&c. In all these cases there was no better reason for omitting the 
letters which had become silent than there is now for omitting those 
which have become silent in our present words ; and if these last 
ought to be retained, then those which have been rejected ought to 
be restored; and we ought to spell "morning", as formerly, 
" morwenynge ", &c., &c., &c. 

Finally, it seems to be a sufficient answer to those who predict 
dire calamities as the result of rationalizing the orthography of the 
language to point them to other languages, as the Spanish, Italian, 
&c. , in which the thing has been substantially accomplished, and 
with excellent results. 

3. It is said that the proposed change would render all our libra- 
ries and books of every description useless. This is not true. The 
present generation certainly would not lose the ability to read our 
present books ; and the coming generations, having been taught 
phonetically, would read them with very little trouble, — just as we 
now read the old book^ in which the orthography differs from ours 
as ours differs from the proposed new orthography. In fact it has 
been demonstrated by repeated experiments that a saving of more than 
one half of the time and labor of teaching children to read our com- 
mon books may be effected by teaching them the phonetic method 
first, and then making the transition to the common orthography. 

4. It is said that all the present type and printer's cases would be 
rendered useless by the proposed changes. 27m is also not true. 
The type is continually wearing out ; and in renewing, phonetic type 
could be obtained as well as any other, and with no increased ex- 
pense. Large and valuable fonts, not much worn, could be extended 
by having the new letters cast to match them. The present cases 
would answer for the new Alphabets by simply putting the Small 
Capitals of each font into a small ]ob case. 

NOTE 2.— Phonetic Alphabets. ( p. 22.) 

The Phonetic Alphabets which have heretofore been proposed 
have been very imperfect ; and that has been one reason why they 
have not been more readily received. Near the beginning of this 
volume, however, a very much improved Alphabet is given, which 



324 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC QBAMMAB. 

is respectfully offered to the consideration of all friends of the Lan- 
guage Reform. 

It will be seen that this Alphabet is more complete than former 
ones, — representing, as it does, forty -four elementary sounds (in- 
cluding diphthongs), — that the script forms of the new letters are 
easily produced with the pen, and do not extend below the line, or 
differ much from forms already in use, — ^that the new typic 
forms are modifications of the common letters, and obtained by sim- 
ply omitting certain parts of them, — that the valuable letter " c " is 
retained, and assigned, as in Italian, to the sound of " ch " in 
" chain ", — that the nineteen Vowels all represent long sounds when 
accented, and short ones when not accented, — that if it is desired to 
distinguish long and short sounds otherwise than by the Accent, it 
may be done by using Roman letters for the long sounds, and Italic 
letters for the short ones, — and that by this construction of the 
Alphabet is avoided the glaring absurdity of mating together as long 
and short two sounds which differ in quality more than in length, 
and which are often reversed in Speech and in Poetry, — the so-called 
long sound being used as short, and the so called short one as long in 
the same foot. 

A SPESIMEN OV FONETIK PRINT. 

Sum OV de prmsipal \dvantajez ov dis Ponotipik Alfabet. 

1. It iz komplet enuf tu aford de menz ov rtprezentir wid tolerabl ak- 
urasi de aktyual pronunsiabun ov de pepl, hAvic iz not de kas wid em ov 
de uder 41fabets ytt oferd.It iz ekwivalent tu Avun oy siksti-tre Itte/z. 

2. Itavodz de fatal mistak ov doz 41fabfcts m hwic sundz dif^nr muc 
m kwohti ill' trettd az if da wex- lor and sort sondz ov de sam kwohti, 

3. It iz kwit Itjibl evn tu doz hu hav never studid Ponttiks; and it 
diferz so litl m aperans from o/dmari tip az not tu be repulsiv. 

4. It tmploz de Itterz a,e,i,o,^ u,tu rtprezent d&r(sokdld)lor sundz. 

5. It kan be ezili preperd wid a pen-nif m tni prmtin ofts. 

6. It fcntirli obviats de grat tkspens ov prprrir matrisez for nu tips in 
dl de difprtnt stilz and siztz ov Ittorz. 

NOTE 3.— p. 4.— Initial " W " and " Y ". 

The sounds of initial " w" and " y " resemble the sounds of " oo " 
in "pool", and "e" in ''me", respectively, so much that some 
have thought them to be Vowel sounds, or Tonics. If one begins 
with the sound "oo", and utters after it the sound of "a" in 
"make", — thus oo — a, — repeating several times, and gradually 
bringing the sounds together, he will almost imperceptibly glide 
into the word " way ". Hence the sound " oo " will seem to be the 
same as the sound of " w ". In like manner, if one be'jins with the 
sound of " e" in " me ", and utters after it tlie samo rn ind of "a " 



APPEITDIX.— NOTES. 325 

in " make ", — thus e — a, bringing tlie sounds together in repeating, 
he will glide into the word " jea ", Hence the sound " e " will seem 
to be the same as that of "y". These conclusions, however, are 
not correct, as may be seen by different experiments. 

Beginning, as before, with the sound "oo", if one utters after it 
the same sound "oo" again, — ^thus oo — oo, and brings the sounds 
gradually together in repeating, he will find that there will either 
be a gap between the sounds, or, if they come entirely together, they 
will simply form one long " oo^ — " ; but if the sound of " w " is 
uttered first, and the sound " oo " follows it, then, on bringing them 
together, the result is the word " woo ", which is not merely one long 

*' oo ", nor is there a gap between the two parts. Hence the 

sound of " w" is not the same as that of " oo ". So also beginning 
with " e ", and uttering after it the same " e " again, one gets " e " — 
"e" — two sounds with a gap between them, — or else one long 

"e " ; but beginning with the sound of " y ", and uttering after 

it the sound of '"e ", — when these sounds are brought together, the 

result is the word " ye ", which is not merely a long " e ", nor is 

there a gap between tbe parts. Hence the sound of " y " is not the 
same as that o^f " e ". 

In forming the sound of "w", the lips are not protruded as in 
forming the sound of " oo ", but are kept back next the teeth, while 
they are drawn up like a purse ; and the sound is made as short as 
possible. 

In forming the sound of " y ", the tongue is pressed up towards 
the roof of the mouth much harder than in forming the sound of 
"e", thus making the aperture through which the breath passes 
much smaller ; and the sound is made as short as possible. 

NOTE 4. — p. 66. — Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. 

No attempt is made in this work to separate the Verbs into the 
Sub-Classes Transitive and Intransitive, because this division seems 
not to be either a natural or a necessary one. The word " transitive " 
means " passing over ", or " going across " ; and a Transitive Verb 
is usually defined as one expressing an action which passes over from 
the Subject to the Object, and terminates on the Object. Very many 
Verbs, however, are reckoned as transitive, which are not included by 
this definition. In the sentence " He feels a pain ", it is a little diffi- 
cult to perceive how the action expressed by the verb "feels " passes 
over from the Subject "he" and terminates on the Object "pain". 
This definition is also happily illustrated by the following examples, 
each of which contains a " Transitive" Verb and its Object. 

He resembles his brother. He lacks an opportunity. He needs 
encouragement. He neglects his business. He forgets his obliga- 



326 A COMPLETE 8GIENTIFIG GRAMMAR, 

tious. He liears a sound. He omits his lessons. He avoids the ob- 
stacle. He sliuns the danger. He misses the opportunity. He has 
a book. He owns a farm. He owes me a dollar. He experiences 
pleasure. He endures the trial. He foregoes the enjoyment. He 
disbelieves the story. He knows the man. The house occupies 
much space. The field contains ten acres. The tree exceeds fifty 
feet in height. He received a blow upon the head. He lost his life 
by means of the wound. The tree affords a shelter. The farm 
yields an income. The mountain retains its position. The rock 
maintains its silence. The scene disappoints my expectations. The 
guide-board indicates the way. This path will lead you to the cave. 
Fossil remains demonstrate the former existence of strange animals. 
The hat fits him. This piece matches the other. The earth covers 
the rock. New times demand new measures and new men. His 
position exposes him to criticism. The air surrounds the earth. 
The shell incloses the kernel. These lines include a space. The 
desert exhibits a strange appearance. This fact concerns him alone. 
That hill hides the village from our view. This consideration obvi- 
ates the difficulty. The letter " x " represents the unknown quantity. 
The brilliancy of the Diamond enhances its value. The odd shape 
of the article prevents the use of it. The weight of the implement 
destroys its utility. This circumstance exonerates him from blame. 

Other Definitions. 

A Transitive Verb is sometimes said to be one which has, or may 
have, an object after it.— If this is true, then all verbs are transitive ; 
for every verb has, or may have, an object after it. 

Sometimes a Transitive Verb is said to be one which requires the 
addition of an object to complete its meaning. If this is true then 
no Verbs are transitive ; for no Verb requires the addition of an ob- 
ject to complete its meaning. 

NOTE 5. — p. 66. — Definitions ofjthe Verb. 
The definitions of the Verb heretofore given are very unsatisfac- 
tory, as all are aware who have studied them carefully. In defining 
the other classes of words, the manner of their use has been taken as 
their distinguishing attribute ; and an Adjective has been defined as 
a word used to limit a Noun, &c. ; but in defining the Verb, it has 
been attempted to base the definition not upon the use of the word, 
but upon the signification of it. This plan can never lead to a good 
definition of any class of words. It has been said that " A Verb is a 
word signifying to be, to do, or to suffer ; but this is three definitions 
instead of one, and makes three classes of words ; for it is not 
meant that any one Verb signifies all these things, but that some 
Verbs signify "to be", some others "to do", and others still "to 



APPENDIX.— NOTES. 327 

suffer ", — thus making three classes of words, and giving no reason 
why they should all be called Verbs. Many other objections also lie 
against this definition. Others have said that " A Verb is a word 
which signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. " This avoids the 
uncommon use of the word suffer in the former definition ; but 
otherwise it is no better. 

Again it has been said that " A Verb is a word which expresses 
action, being, or state ". — This, in addition to the objections to the 
former definitions, is liable to this, that it includes a multitude of 
words which are not Verbs ; for the words action, business, exertion, 
and employment express "action"; life, being, and existence, ex- 
press " being " ; and state, condition, quietude, &c. , express " state " ; 
but none of them are Verbs. 

Once more, it has been said that '-A Verb is a word which ex- 
presses an assertion or affirmation ". — It requires, however, at least 
two words to express an assertion, — unless an exception should be 
found in the word " yes ", which is not a Verb. 

Again the following beautifully brief and luminous definition has 
been given : " The Verb is a primary part of speech, and of the most 
importance The uses of the Verb are to affirm, assert, or declare, — 
to command, exhort, or invite, — to pray, request, entreat, — to in- 
quire or question." 

In the last two definitions it is attempted to point out the use of 
the Verb ; but the attempts are unsuccessful. 

Home Tooke, after quoting in derision, about a dozen futile 
attempts, utterly declines himself to undertake the definition of the 
Verb ; and Gould Brown strongly intimates that a satisfactory defi- 
nition is impossible. — It will be found, however, that the definition 
given in this work, is complete and exact. It is based upon the only 
characteristic which is peculiar to all Verbs ; and hence it completely 
distinguishes them from all other words ; and it is sufficiently brief 
to be convenient for use. 

NOTE 6.— p. 66.— The (Jopula. 

It is sometimes said that " am "or " be " means " exist ", and hence 
is a Verb ; but this is not so. The Predicate after the Copula is 
often omitted ; but it must be supplied in analyzing. In answer to 
the question "Is he ready?" it maybe replied "He is." In this 
case, however, it is not " existence" but "readiness ' that is affirmed 
of " he ". The Predicate " ready " is understood So also m the sen- 
tence " He that coineth to God must believe that Re is, and that He 
is a rewarder, &c.", the Predicate " existing " is understood. In the 
sentence " The house is still existing", evidently the " is" does not 
mean " exists " ; for " The house exists still existing " is merely a 



328 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR. 

specimen of tautology and nonsense. In the sentence '•' The beauty 
of tlie rose will soon be anniliilated ", if ' be " means " exist ", then 
** The beauty of the rose will exist in a state of Jion-existence "/ In 
the sentence " A Fairy is an imaginary creature", if "is" means 
" exists ", then "A Fairy exists an imaginary creature" ; but ''an 
imaginary creature " is one which does not exist I In the sentence 
'■That is a non-entity ", if " is " means " exists ", then the sentence 
becomes " That exists an un-existing thing " ! In fact neither ' be ", 
" am ", nor " is " ever means " exist " or " exists ". 

NOTE 7.— p. 60.— Gender. 

Since Adjectives have no Gender, in English, it is often thought 
to be unnecessary to classify the Nouns as Masculine, Feminine, 
Doubtful, and Neuter ; but since the Personal Pronoun has Gender, 
it is as truly necessary to make this classification as if the Adjectives 
were inflected as in Latin. 

•NOTE 8. — p. 81. — Brethren, Dies, Pennies, Pease, &c. 

The old Plural "brethren " denotes those of the same Church, So- 
ciety, or Association; but "brothers" denotes those of the same 
family. 

"Dies'' means stamps used in coining, &c. ; but "dice" means 
little cubical blocks used in gaming. 

" Pennies " denotes separate pieces of coin ; but " pence" denotes 
twelfth- parts of a Shilling, — indicating value only. 

The form " pease " is not a plural form. 

NOTE 9. — p. 81. — Plural op a Name and Title. 

The title is simply a sec6nd name, modifying (i. e. in apposition 
with) the first, and must agree with it in Number. 

It is proper to say " The Harpers, those Publishers ", or " Those 
Publishers, the Harpers" ; but it is not proper to say " The Harpers, 
that Publisher ", or " That Publisher, the Harpers ", or " The Har- 
per, those Publishers", or " Those Publishers, the Harper". 

If the Harpers were to be called Doctors, or Generals, or Misters, 
or anything else, it would make no difference ; — the title must still 
agree with the name. The use or disuse of the words "those", 
" that ", and " the " does not alter the case at all. 

NOTE 10.— p. 85.— Possessive C^ase. 

The Possessive Case formerly ended in " is " or " es " ; and the 
Apostrophe, in Possessive forms, merely shows the omission of one 
or both the letters which formed the Case- ending. 

The habit which some have of omitting both of the terminal let- 
ters in the Singular is very objectionable. 



APPENDIX.— NOTES. 329 

NOTE 11.— p. 90.— The Form "Hem". 

The forms She {ISeo), Her, and ''Hem", were formerly used as 
Plurals. When " She " and " Her " came to be used as Feminines 
Singular, their places were supplied in the Plural by " They " and 
"Their"; but ''Hem" remained in its original use until it was 
superseded by " Them," and then became obsolete. In the Wickliffe 
version of the Bible " hem " is used for " Mm" in Genesis 30 : 36. 

NOTE 12. — p. 93. — Comparison op Good and Bad. 

It is remarkable that the Adjectives signifying " good " and " bad " 
are irregular in many other languages as well as in the English, — 
particularly in the Greek, Latin, German, French, Spanish, Italian, 
Dutch, Danish, Icelandic, Swedish, &c. 

NOTE 13. — p. 98. — Forms of the 2nd Person. 

It is a very pernicious error to assume, as some do, that the forms 
of the Second Person Singular of Verbs and Pronouns are obsolete in 
the language. They are appropriated, it is true, to certain specific 
uses in Poetry and Religious Exercises, aside from their use in the 
Bible ; but they are neither obsolete nor obsolescent, and probably 
never will be while the language shall endure. It is certainly a bold 
and most unwarranted proceeding to attempt to remove from Text 
Books those forms which are especially appropriate to devotional lan- 
guage, even if they were not also indispensable to the better kinds 
of Poetry. Religion itself is not yet entirely obsolete ! 

f NOTE 14.— p. 112.— Inflections. 

The Santal, one of the Languages of Hindoostan, has a regular set 
of Dual Forms ; and some languages have more modes of inflection 
than the Greek, and very many more Inflectional Forms. The 
Fiji Language has four Numbers, Singular, Dual, Small Plural, and 
Large Plural. 

The Sanskrit has eight Cases, the Turkish twelve, the Basque 
twelve, and the Finnish and Laplandish each fourteen. 

The Congoes and CaflSrs have many Genders. 

The Latin has four Moods (or Modes), the Greek five, and the Sans- 
krit six. The Russian Verb, besides Moods and Tenses, has six 
Aspects ; and the Hebrew has seven Voices and thirteen Conjugations. 

In the Turkish Language, the Verb has, sometimes, 

1st, Simple, Reflexive, and Reciprocal Forms. 

2nd, Each of these has a Causative Form. — making six forms. 

3d, Each of these six has a Passive Form, — making twelve. 

4th, Each of these twelve has, besides its Affirmative, a Negative 
and an Impossible Form, — making thirty-six. 



330 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC ORAMMAB. 

5tli, Each of the thirty-six has Modes, Tenses, Numbers, and Per- 
sons, — making three or foui' thousand Forms. 

In the Basque Language all Parts of Speech admit of Declension, — 
even Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. 

The Adjective has twenty Cases. Every Verb has twenty-six 
radical forms, each with a great number of Inflections. 

Different forms of the verb are employed in addressing a child, a 
woman, an equal, or a superior. 

In the Tamil Language there are also Honorific Forms ; and the 
Verbs have Gender, but not Voice. There are no Relative Pronouns ; 
and instead of saying " I am beaten ", one must say " I suffer beat- 
ing ", " I get beating ", " I get stripes ", " I eat beating ", &c. 

Also the terminations used in Inflection exist as separate words in 
the Language, and are called Particles. 

Honorific Forms are abundant in the Samoan, and other Polynesian 
Languages. 

NOTE 15.— p. 113.—" Soon ", &c. 
The words " soon ", " often ", " seldom ", &c., are no exceptions to 
this statement, as they are really Adverbs of Manner. " Soon " is a 
contraction of the old word " soonly" ; &c. 

NOTE 16.— p. 146.— Activity, &c. 

In a Verbal Sentence, or an Active Copulative Sentence, the person 
or thing indicated by the Subject is usually represented as acting. 

In a Passive Sentence the person or thing indicated by the Subject 
is usually represented as acted upon. 

In a Neuter Sentence the person or thing indicated by the Subject 
is usually represented neither as acting nor as acted upon. 

In the sentence " The stone breaks easily ", the word " itself " is 
understood after " breaks " ; and " breaks itself '=" is broken ". 
This Idiom is borrowed from the French, and is quite common. 
Verbs so used are called Reflexive Verbs. 

In the sentence " They are gone ", the word "gone" is to be 
regarded as an Adjective rather than as a Participle ; and so also 
the predicates in the sentences " The days are come "," The birds 
are flown", "The years are fled", "The friends are departed", 
"The sun is risen "," They are fallen", "The glass is broken", 
*' The rod is bent ", (Sec, &c. Hence these are not Passive Sentences. 

NOTE 17.— p. 136.— f The Origin of Language. 

Much needless mystery has been thrown around the Origin of 
Language. It has been thought to be a miraculous Divine Gift ; — 
impossible to have been developed by human intelligence, &c. ; but 
in fact, to a being possessed of man's intelligence and vocal organs, 



APPENDIX.— NOTES. 331 

language is a necessity instead of an impossibility, — as much so as 
laughing or crying. There is nothing more incomprehensible in the 
origin of Language than in the constantly observed growth and de- 
velopment of it. — Children, long before they can speak, utter spon- 
taneously many of the Radicles and Roots ; and, a little later, they 
produce many of the Stems and Themes from which words have 
been developed ; and it seems strange that to any observing person, 
acquainted with the nature of language there should be any appear- 
ance of mystery about it. The methods by which particular sounds 
and combinations of sounds have been associated with specific ideas, 
and hence have become words, are doubtless various. To suppose 
otherwise is to suppose the human mind to be different from what it 
is known to be. 

The principle of imitation has led to the formation of many words, 
but not all. Some Interjections have been developed into inflected 
words ; but all words have not been thus formed. Neither the 
Onomatopoetic nor the Inter jectional theory, — neither the how-wow 
nor the pooh-pooh theory, as they have been called, — is sufficient by 
itself, nor are the two combined sufficient to account for all words, 
or even a majority of them ; but that fact does not make it at all 
probable that human Language is not a spontaneous outgrowth of 
human nature. 

f NOTE 18.— p. 223.— Multiple Rhymes. 

Rhymes of four, five, six, seven, and even eight syllables, are pos- 
sible in English ; but they are seldom used because they give to a 
composition something of the disagreeable character of Task Poetry. 
In Arabic and Persian quadruple and quintuple rhymes are some- 
times used. 

EXAMPLES. 

Quadruple Rhyme. 

The book is full | of question marks | and notes exclam. [ atory ; 
The language too, | I'm sure I think, | is quite defam | atory. 

Quintuple Rhyme. 

And when 'twas found the wondrous Duke had lost his visibility, 
The people hardly could, in truth, restrain their risibility. 

Sextuple Rhyme. 

In regard to [ his creed he | was lati | tudinistic ; 
In respect to | his style he | was plati j tudinistic. 

Septuple Rhyme. 

However many points there be of w/icongeniality. 

You'll find at least between the two there's one congeniality. 



332 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR. 

Octuple Rhymes. 

How, tliink | you, can | any man | wonder at | unin | telligi | bility 
In a I book whose | author en | deavors to | shun in | telligi | bility ? 
Or how can | any one | fail to ex | pect some j incompre | hensi | 

bility 
Where a | writer no | longer en | deavors to | win compre | hensi | 

bility ? 

NOTE 19. — p. 155. — Prepositional Phrases. 

In case of the Substantive Prepositions, the Preposition is the 
Base of the Phrase ; and the Object is a Modifier of the Base. 

NOTE 20.— p. 202,— Compound Participles, &c. 
The term "Compound Participle*' is a convenient one; but it 
should be noticed that the combination which it indicates is not em- 
braced in the Definition of "A Participle " ; and a like observation 
may be made in regard to the terms "Compound Phrase" and 
" Compound Sentence". 

NOTE 21.— p. 165.— Charts. 

The use of the Analytical Charts, placed at the beginning and end 
of this Volume, will be found of essential service to the beginner in 
analyzing sentences, and in Parsing. 

f NOTE 22.— p. 216.— Poet, &c. 

The word "Poet" signifies a "Maker" ; and "Poetry" means 
literary composition which is " made ", i. e. , skillfully, or artistically 
made. 

f NOTE 23.— p. 32.— Grimm's Law. 

There are three Classes of the Indo-Germanic Languages, sustain- 
ing a peculiar relation to each other. 

The 1st, or English, Class includes the English, Anglo-Saxon, 
Gothic, Frisian, &c. — The 2nd, or Latin, Class includes the Latin, 
Greek, Sanskrit, Lithuanian, and Slavonic, and the Languages de- 
rived from them. — The 3d, or German, Class includes the High Ger- 
manic Languages. 

Now when the same word is found in all, or any two, of these 
Classes of Languages, it may be expected to present, in passing from 
one Class to another, the Consonant Changes represented in the fol- 
lowing Table. There are, however, many exceptions to this Law. 

GRIMM'S LAW TABULATED. 



English 


P 


t 


k 


b 


d 


g 


f 


th 


h 


Latin 


b 


d 


cr 

o 


f 


ch 


th 


P 


t 


k 


German 


f 


th, z 


ch 


P 


t 


k 


b 


d 


g 



APPENDIX.— NOTES. 333 

NOTE 24— p. 73.—' By and by". 
" By and hy " is an example of intensive, or empliatic, repetition, 
such as occurs very frequently in the Hebrew. The '' by " was taken 
in the sense of " near time " = " soon '. " By and by " then signified 
" very soon " ; but being often used in predicting things which did 
not occur very soon, its meaning was misapprehended, and finally 
reversed, so that now it signifies " after sometime ", or " not very 
soon ". 

NOTE 25. — p. 111.— Voices op the Verb. 

The Active Voice of a Verb (commonly, but improperly, so 
called) consists of all the forms of the verb except the Past Parti- 
ciple. 

The Passive Voice (improperly so called) is formed by annexing 
the Past Participle of the verb to the several forms of the Copula. 

NOTE 26.— p. 176-— Where, Whence, and Whither. 
In Example 65, the Preposition " in " may perhaps be supplied be- 
fore the word "where", and justified by the common forms 
" wherein ", " whereby ", &c. — In like manner " from " may be sup- 
plied before " whence " in Example 66, and " to '' before " whither " 
in Example 67. — This is only doing the same thing which is done in 
Latin, when Prepositions are used before Ablative forms, &c. If 
anyone wishes to call "where", " whence ". and "whither" Ad- 
verbs, in the above Examples, they may be called Relative Pronomi- 
nal Adverbs. 

NOTE 27.— p. 120.— "Derivation". 

The Definition of " Derivation " may appear to some to be imper- 
fect. Many words will seem to be improperly excluded by it from 
the Class of " Derivatives", 

All those words will, however, be found to be really examples of 
Inflection or Composition, except, perhaps, a very few anomalous 
forms. 



ANALYTICAL INDEX. 



PAGE. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Preface vii 

Prof. Grimm on the English. 

Language xi 

The Study of the English 

Language xii 

Origin of the English Lan- 
guage 

Difficulty of the English Lan- 
guage xiv 

Note to Teachers xvi 

A COMPLETE 

SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
PRELIMINARY DEFINITIONS. 

Science 17 

Art 

A Word 

A Syllable 

Language 

Writing 

A Written Word 

Philology 

Grammar 

Rhetoric 

The English Language 

English Grammar 

A Sentence 18 

A Phrase 

The Subject of a Sentence. . . 
The Predicate of a Sentence. 
The Copula of a Sentence. .. 

The Subject of Discourse 

Correct Usage 

Authorized Usage 

DIVISIONS. EXAMPLES. 

The Divisions of Grammar . . 
PART I. — Orthography. 

Orthography , . . . 

Divisions of Orthography. . . 
CHAPTER I.— Elementary 
Sounds. 
An Elementary Sound , . . , 



page. 
A Letter 

A Letter-equivalent 19 

Number of Elementary 
Sounds 

Classes of Elementary Sounds 

A Tonic Element 

A Sub-Tonic Element 

An Atonic Element 

A Vowel 

A Consonant 

An Alphabet 

The Latin Alphabet 

The English Alphabet 

The Deficiences of the Eng- 
lish Alphabet. , , 

The Phonetic Alphabet 

The Vowelf of the Common 
Alphabet 

The Consonants 

Ambiguous Letters 

Fundamental Idea 

Writing of the Eng. Language 20 

Correlative Sounds 

Diphthongs 

Long Sounds 

Short Sounds 

Time of a Long Sound 

Variation 

Phonology 

Comparative Phonology 

Phonography 

Heterography 

Phonetic Short Hand 

TABLE OF sounds. 
EXAMPLES. 

Special Classes of Conso- 
nants 21 

The Liquids 

The Mutes 

The Aspirate 

The Sibilant 

DIPHTHONGS. 

"I'- in **time" 



(334) 



ANALYTICAL INDEX. 



335 



PAGE. 

"Oi"iii "boil" 

"Ou"m "found" 

Phonetic Alphabet 22 

Sounds of the Letters 23 

Letters of the Common Al- 
phabet, a, e, i, o, u, y, w, 
b, d, f, h, j, k, c, g, 1, m, 
n, p, q, r, s, t, v, z, x 

Rule for x 

Rule for c 24 

Rule for g 

Rule for r 

A Digraph 

A Trigraph 

A Tetragraph 

* CONSONANT DIGRAPHS 

The Consonant Digraphs .... 

th, sh, ch, gh, ph, ng 

sc, ck, rh, gl, gn, wh, cz 

Rule for ch 

* DOUBLE CONSONANTS. 

The Double Consonants bb, 
&c 

* MIXED DIGRAPHS (CONSONANTS 
AND VOWELS) 25 

The Mixed Digraphs ci, si, ti, 
di, zi, ce 

* VOWEL DIGRAPHS. 

The Vowel Digraphs, aa, ae, 
ai, ao, au, ea, ee, ei, eo, 
eu, ia, ie, oa, oe, oi, oo, 
ou, ua, ue, ui, aw, ow, 

ew, ay, ey, oy, uy 

* CONSONANT TRIGRAPHS 26 

The Consonant Trigraphs, 
sch, tch, rrh 

* VOWEL TRIGRAPHS. 

The Vowel Trigraphs, eau, 
eou, ieu, oeu, eoi, uoi, aie, 
aou, awe, iew, aye, eye, 
eyo, uay 

* CONSONANT TETRAGRAPHS. 

tsch 

* VOWEL TETRAGRAPHS 

ueue 

* SILENT LETTERS 27 

Silent Letters 

Use ■■ . 

Cost 

Letters never Silent 

EXAMPLES. 
* FINAL " E." 

The Final' e" 



PAGE. 

* PINAL " E " DIGRAPHS (VOWELS). 

The Final "e" Vowel Di- 
graphs, a-e, e-e, i-e, o-e, 
u-e, y-e 

* FINAL " E " DIGRAPHS (MIXED). 

The Final "e" Mixed Di- 
graphs, ce, ge, se 

* final "e" trigraphs 
(vowels). 
The Final "e" Vowel Tri- 
graphs, au-e, ea^-e 

* FINAL "e" TRIGRAPHS (MIX- 

ED) 28 

The Final "e" Mixed Tri- 
graphs, th-e, is-e 

* SILENT CONSONANTS. 

Silent Consonants 

* silent consonant digraphs 

(mixed). 
The Silent Consonant Di- 
graphs, ah, eh, al, ie, ig, 
is, ol, ug, uh, eg 

* SILENT CONSONANT TRIGRAPHS 

(mixed). 
The Silent Consonant Tri- 
graphs, ach, igh, oul 29 

* SILENT CONSONANT TETRA- 

GRAPHS (mixed). 
The Silent Consonant Tetra- 
graphs, eigh, ough 

* DIFFERENT SIGNS FOR THE 

SAME SOUND. 

Each Elementary Sound 

CONSONANTS. 

1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12. 
13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 

20,21,21,23, 24,25 

VOWELS 30 

26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 
34, 35, 36, 37, 38. 39, 40, 
41,42,43,44.,..; 

* TOTAL NUMBER 31 

The Number of Letters and 
Letter-Equivalents 

ORGANIC CLASSES OF THE SOUNDS. 

Labials 

Dentals 

Linguals 

Palatals 

Gutturals 

* GROUPING OF THE CONSONANTS. 

1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, and 5th Ranks. 32 



336 



ANALYTICAL INDEX. 



PAGE. 
* RELATIONS AND CHANGES. 

Related Sounds 

Related Words 

Consonants of Related Words 

Consonant Changes 

Vowel Changes 

Assimilation 

Accommodation 

Eduction 

Euphonic Change 

Orthographic Expedient 

f PHONETIC LAWS. 

1. Correlative Sounds 

2 Related Sounds 33 

3. Sounds of Adjacent Ranks 

4. Sounds of More Remote 
Ranks 

5. Assimilation, &c 

6. Omission 

7. Insertion, &c 

8. Transposition 

9. Eduction 

10. Substitution of one for 

two 

11. Consonant to Vowel 

12. Vowel to Consonant 

EXAMPLES. 

CHAPTER II.— Letters 34 

Capital Letters 

Small Letters 

* Styles of Letters 

* Sizes of Letters 

Some Common Sizes 

RULES FOR CAPITALS. 

Rulel 

Rule II 

Rulelll 35 

EXAMPLES. 

EXERCISES 36 

* ITALIC LETTERS. 

Italic Letters 

Use 

Rule 

Italics in the Bible 37 

EXAMPLES. 
SMALL CAPITALS. 

Small Capitals, &c 

Underscoring 

One Line under. 

Two Lines 

Three Lines 

Four Lines 

Degrees of Emphasis 



PAGE. 

Other Modes of Distinction . . 

EXAMPLES. 

CHAPTER IIL— Syllables. 

Constituents, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 

A Monosyllable 38 

A Dissyllable 

A Trisyllable 

A Polysyllable 

Greatest number of Syllables. 

Compound Word 

Simple Word 

f SYLLABICATION. 

Syllabication 

Objects, 1st and 2d 

American Method 

English Method 

RULES FOR AMERICAN METHOD. 

1. Compound Words 

2. Prefixes, «Sz;c 39 

3. Bi-accentual Words 

4. Single Consonant be- 
tween Vowels 

5. Mute and liquid between 
Vowels 

6. Any other two Conso- 
nants between Vowels . . 

7. Three or more Conso- 
nants between Vowels . . 

8. Two Vowel Sounds to- 
gether 

9. Digraphs, &c 

10. Silent Letters 

11. Word at the end of a line. 

RULES FOR ENGLISH METHOD. 

1. Original Elements 

2. Consonants, &c., between 

Vowels 

3. In other respects 40 

EXERCISES. 

CHAPTER IV.— Accent. 

The Ultimate 

The Penult 

The Antepenult 

Accent ., 

Elements of Accent 

Polysyllables 

Primary Accent 

Secondary Accent 

Tertiary Accent 

Acute Accent 

Heavy Acute Accent 

Light Acute Accent 

Bi-accentual Words 



ANALYTICAL INDEX. 



337 



PAGE, 
f RULES FOR ACCENT. 

1. Monosyllables 

2. Inflected forms, «&c., of 
Monosyllables 

3. Primitives of more than 
one Syllable 41 

4. Inflected forms, &c., of 
long words 

5. Foreign Words 

6. Naturalized Words 

7. Ease of Pronunciation. . . 

8. Bi-accentual Words 

9. Contrasted Words 

10. Words ending in cracy, 
&c 

11 . Words ending in cate, &c. 

12. Words with sound of sh, 
&c 

13. Words ending in ic, &c . . 

14. Words ending in e-al, &c. 

15. Dissyllabic Adjectives. .. 

16. Adjectives of more than 
two syllables 

17. Exceptions 42 

EXERCISES. 

CHAPTER v.— Spelling. 

General Rules 

Individual Words 

Special Rules 

* RLT^ES FOR SPELLING. 43 

1. Double the f and 1, &c. . . 

2. Double the s, &c 

3. Double the b.. &:c 

4. Add k to c following a 
Vowel, &c 

5. Add k to c at the end, &c. 

6. Double a final single con- 
sonant, &c 

7. Drop one f, &c 

8. Drop a final silent e, &c.. 

9. Change a final ie, &c 

10. Change y, &c 

11. Retain a final y, &c 44 

12. Drop a final e, &c 

13. Retain a final double Con- 
sonant, &c 

14. In Compound Words, &c. 

EXAMPLES. 

EXERCISES. 

f PRINCIPLES OF ABBREVIATION. 

Abbreviation 45 

Object of 

A Good Abbreviation 



PAGE* 

Methods 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 

10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 46 

WORDS ABBREVIATED. 

First Class 

Second 

Third " 47 

Fourth 

Fifth 

Sixth 

Seventh Class 

Eighth '' 

Ninth " 

Tenth " 

Eleventh " 

Twelfth " 

Thirteenth" 

Fourteenth Class 

Fifteenth " 

THE WORD MISTERS, 

The Word Misters 

Abbreviation of Mistresses . . 
Where to find a List of Ab- 
breviations 

* CHAPTER VI.— Punctuation. 

Punctuation 

The Use of Punctuation 

Pauses in Reading 

Classes of Points 48 

SENTENCE POINTS. 

The Sentence Points 

RULES FOR THE PERIOD. 

First Rule 

Second " 

Third " 

Fourth " 

EXAMPLES. 

RULES FOR THE EXCLAMATION 

POINT. 

First Rule 

Second " 

Third " 

Fourth" 

EXAMPLES. 

RULES FOR THE INTERROGATION 

POINT. 

FirstRule 49 

Second " 

EXAMPLES. 
RULES FOR THE COLON. 

First Rule. 

Second " 

EXAMPLES. 



338 



ANALYTICAL INDEX, 



PAGE. 
KULES FOR THE SEMI-COLON. 

First Rule 

Second " 50 

Third " 

EXAMPLES. 
RULES FOR THE COMMA. 

First Rule 

Second 

Third 

Fourth 

Fifth 

Sixth 

Seventh Rule 

Eighth " ............... 

Ninth " .... .... 

EXAMPLES. 
RULES FOR THE CURVES. 

First Rule 51 

Second" , .... 

Third " .. .... 

EXAMPLES. 
RULES FOR THE BRACKETS. 

First Rule 52 

Second " 

EXAMPLES. 
RULES FOR THE DASH. 

First Rule 

Second" 

Third " . 

Fourth" 

Fifth " ..:... 

Sixth " 

Seventh Rule 

EXAMPLES. 

RULES FOR THE QUOTATION 

MARKS. 

First Rule 53 

Second " 

Third " 

Fourth" 

Fifth " 

EXAMPLES. 
RULES FOR MARKS OF ELLIPSIS. 

First Rule 54 

Second " 

Third " 

Fourth " 

EXAMPLES. 
WORD POINTS. 

The Word Points 55 

The Acute Accent 

The Grave Accent 

The Circumflex Accent 



PAGE. 

The Double Acute Accent. .. 

The Hyphen 

The Apostrophe 

The Macron 

The Breve 

The Diaeresis 

The Dot 56 

The Cedilla 

The Tilde 

EXAMPLES. 
MISCELLANEOUS POINTS. 

The Paragraph 

The Section 

The Index 

The Asterism 

The Caret 

The Double Comma 

The Brace 

Leaders 

Marks of Reference 

Superiors 57 

EXERCISES. 

PART 11. —Etymology. 

Etymology 59 

Divisions of Etymology 

CHAPTER I.— Classification. 

Classification 

Object of Classification. ..... 

Parts of Speech 

class I. — Nouns. 
ANoun 60 

SUB-CLASSES. 

A Proper Noun 

A Common Noun 

first sub- class. — PROPER 
NOUNS. 

Proper Names of Persons. .. 

Other Proper Names 

A Prename 

A Surname 

A Middle Name 

Surnames Alone 

SECOND sub-class. — COMMON 

NOUNS. 

DIVISIONS. 

1. Full Nouns 

2. Defective Nouns 

SECOND DIVISION. — DEFECTIVE 

NOUNS. 
SUB-DIVISIONS. 

1. Masculine Nouns 

2. Feminine Nouns 

3. Doubtful Nouns 61 






ANALYTICAL INDEX, 



339 



PAGE. 

4. Neuter Nouns 

Note 

METAPHYSICAL SUB-CLASSES OP 

NOUNS. 

1. A Concrete Noun 

3. An Abstract Noun 

GKOUPS OP COMMON NOUNS. 

1. A Collective Noun 

3. A Material Noun , . . , 

3. A Participial Noun 

Notes 1 and 3 

EXERCISES. 

CliASS n. — ^AD JECrr^TES. 

An Adjective 63 

SUB-CLASSES. 

1. A Descriptive Adjective. . . 

3. A Definitive Adjective 

FIBST SUB-CLASS. — DESCRIPTrVE 
ADJECTIVES. 

DrsnsioNs. 

1. A Qualitative Adjective. . . 

2. A Material Adjective 

3. A Participial Adjective.. . . 
Note 

SECOND SUB-CLASS. — DEPINITFVE 

ADJECTIVES, 

DIVISIONS. 

1. Articles 

3. Numeral Adjectives 

3. Pronominal Adjectives, . . . 

FIRST DIVISION. — ARTICLES. 

1, The Definite Article 

3. The Indefinite Article. . . . 

SECOND DIVISION. — NUMERAL 

ADJECTIVES. 

SUB-DIVISIONS. 

1. Cardinal Numerals 63 

3. Ordinal Numerals 

THIRD DIVISION. — PRONOMINAL 

ADJECTIVES. 

SUB-DIVISIONS. 

1 . Demonstratives 

2. Distributives 

3. Indefinites 

4. Interrogatives 

5. Relatives 

EXAMPLES. 
GROUPS OF ADJECTIVES. 

1. Proper Adjectives 

3. Periodical Adjectives 64 

3. Replicatives 

4. Combinatives 



PAGE. 

5. Singular Adjectives 

6. Plural Adjectives 65 

EXERCISES. 
CLASS m. — PRONOUNS. 
A Pronoun 

SUB-CLASSES. 

1. A Personal Pronoun 

LIST. 

2. A Relative Pronoun 

The Antecedent of a Rela- 
tive 

LIST. 

3. An Interrogative Pronoun. 

LIST. 

4. An Indefinite Pronoun. . . . 

LIST. 

5. A Possessive Pronoun. . . . 

LIST. 
COMPOUND FORMS. 

Myself, Thyself, &c 

Himself and Themselves. . . . 

EXERCISES. 
CLASS rV. — COPULAS. 

A Copula 66 

LIST. 
CliASS V. — ^VERBS. 

A Verb 

A Participle 

SUB-CLASSES. 

1. A Regular Verb 

3. An Irregular Verb 

GROUPS OF VERBS. 

1. A Copulative Verb 

LIST. 

3. A Defective Verb 

LIST. 

3. A Redundant Verb 

4. An Auxiliary Verb 

LIST. 
OBJECT. 

The Object of a Verb 67 

EXERCISES. 
CLASS VI. — ADVERBS. 

An Adverb 

SUB-CLASSES. 

1. Limiting Adverbs 

3. Conjunctive Adverbs 

GROUPS OF ADVERBS. 

1. A Modal Adverb 

3. An Adverb of Time 

8. " " " Place 

4. " " ** Cause 



340 



ANALYTICAL INDEX. 



PAGE. 

5. An Adverb of Manner... 68 

6. " " " Degree .. 

7. " " " Number.. 

8. " " " Order 

9. " " " Interroga- 
tion 

10. " " " Negation. 
List of Conjunctive Adverbs. 

EXEBCISES. 
CLASS VII. — PKEPOSITIONS. 

A Preposition 

The Object of a Preposition. 

SUB-CLASSES. 

A Simple Preposition 

A Compound Preposition ... 69 

rmST SUB-CLASS. — SIJVIPLE PRE- 
POSITIONS. 
DIVISIONS. 

1. A Substantive Preposition 

2. An Adjective Preposition. 

SECOND SUB-CLASS. — COMPOUND 

PREPOSITIONS. 

DIVISIONS. 

1. A Plirase Preposition 

2. A Double Preposition 

Note 

LISTS AND DEFINITIONS OF PRE- 
POSITIONS. 
SIMPLE PREPOSITIONS. 

1. Substantive Prepositions. 

2. Adjective Prepositions 70 

Note 

COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS. 

1. Phrase Prepositions 

2. Double Prepositions 71 

f DEFINING PREPOSITIONS. 

The Definitions Given 

A Valuable Exercise 72 

EXAMPLES. 
EXERCISES. 
CLASS VIII. — CONJUNCTIONS. 73 

A Conjunction 

SUB-CLASSES. 

1. An Absolute Conjunction. 

2. Relative Conjunctions. . . . 

DIVISIONS. 

1. Verbal Conjunctions 

LIST. 

2. Adjective Conjunctions. .. 

LIST. 

3. A Substantive Conjunction 

4. Phrase Conjunctions 



PAGE. 

LIST. 
5. Composite Conjunctions.. 74 

LIST. 
LIST OF RELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 

Definitions of Conj unctions. . 

EXERCISES. 75 

CLASS IX. — INTERJECTIONS.. 76 

An Interjection 

SUB-CLASSES. 

1. Inarticulate Interjections. 

2. Articulate Interjections. . . 

SECOND SUB-CLASS. — DIVISIONS. 

1, General Interjections 

2. Special Interjections 

SECOND DIVISION. — SUB-DIVI- 
SIONS. 

1. Joyous Interjections 

2. Sorrowful Interjections. . . 

3. Contemptuous Interjec- 

tions 

SPECIAL CLASS. — EXCLAMATIONS. 

An Exclamation 

SUB-CLASSES. 

1. An Emotional Exclama- 

tion 

2. A Rational Exclamation . . 

SECOND SUB-CLASS. — RATIONAL 

EXCLAMATIONS 77 

DIVISIONS. 

1. Compellatives 

2. Responsives 

3. Fragments 

EXERCISES. 

CHAPTER II.— Inflections. 

General Stem of a Word. . . . 

Termination of a Word 

Inflection 

Uninflected Classes of Words 
Modes of Inflection 

INFLECTION OF NOUNS. 

FIRST MODE OF INFLECTION. — 

GENDER. 

Gender 

A Masculine Form 78 

A Feminine Form . 

The Masculine Gender of a 

Word 

The Feminine Gender 

The Masculine Stem of a 

Word 

The Feminine Stem 



ANALYTICAL INDEX. 



341 



TAGE. 
RULES FOR FORMING THE FEMI- 
NINE STEM. 

1. Proper Nouns 

2. Proper Nouns in " us " . . . 

3. Common Nouns 

* RULES FOR CONTRACTION. 

1. The termination "a "... . 

2. Tlie"n" of " ine " 

3. The termination " ie " 

4. The final "te" 

5. The final "1" 

6. "E" or "o" before final 

"r,"&c.. 

EXAMPLE, 

List of Proper Nouns, Reg- 
ular 

List of Proper Nouns, Irreg- 
ular 79 

List of Common Nouns, Reg- 
ular 

List of Common Nouns, Ir- 
regular 

CORRESPONDING NOUNS. 

Corresponding Masculine and 
Feminine Nouns. ....... 

Formation 80 

EXERCISES. 
SECOND MODE OF INFLECTION. — 
NUMBER. 

Number 

A Singular Form, 

A Plural Form ; . . 

The Singular Stem 

The Plural Stem 

The Singular Number of a 

Word 

The Plural Number of a 

Word... 

* RULES FOR THE PLURAL STEM. 

1. General Rule .... 

2. Words in " ch," &c ' 

3. Words in "o" 

4. Words in " y " ' 

5. Life, Knife, &c 

6. Figures, ko, 

7. Man, &c 81 

8. Ox, &c 

9. Brother, &c 

10. Compounds 

11. Condensed Phrase 

12. Name with Title 

13. Foreign Words 

14. Foreign Plurals 



* FOREIGN WORDS. 
1. Nouns in "a" 

Nouns in " us" (1st). 

Nouns in ' ' um " 

Nouns in "is" (1st).. 
Nouns in " is ' (2nd). 
Nouns in "x" (1st).. 



PAGE. 
LATIN. 



82 



Nouns in " x " (2nd). 
Nouns in " en " 



9. Nouns in *= us" (2nd) ... 

10. Nouns in " us " (3d) 

11. Ignis-fatuus 

GREEK. 

1. Nouns in " on " 

2. Nouns in "a" 83 

3. Nouns in " X " 

ITALIAN. 

Dillettante, &c 

HEBREW. 

1. Feminine Nouns 

2. Masculine Nouns 

FRENCH. 

Abatis, Beau, &c 

AMBIGUOUS NOUNS. 

Ambiguous Nouns 

LIST. 

"Cattle" 

UNINFLECTED NOUNS. 

Uninflected Nouns 

LISTS. 

1. Nouns Plural in Form and 

Sense 

2. Nouns Plural in Form, 

but Singular in Sense ... 84 

3. Plurals liaving Singular 

Forms of different Sense. 

THIRD MODE OF INFLECTION. — 
CASE. 

Case ^ 

Possessive Case 85 

RULES FOR POSSESSIVE CASE. 

1. General Rule 

2. Plural Stems in " s " 

3. Compounds 

DECLENSION. 

Declension . 

To Decline a Word 

PARADIGMS. 

1. Author, , 

2. Child 

3. Deer 

EXERCISES. 



342 



AMALTTICAL INDEX. 



PAGE. 
* FOURTH MODE OF INFLECTION. 
GRADE. 

Grade 86 

1. Normal Forms 

2. Diminutive Forms 

3. Augmentative Forms 

DIMINUTIVES. 

Formation 

Diminutive Terminations.. . . 

Patronymics 

Endearants 

AUGMENTATIVES. 

Formation 87 

Augmentative Terminations. 

SPECIES OF GRADEk 

1. Diminution 

3. Augmentation 

3. Double Grade 

EXAMPLES. 

List of Diminutives 

List of Augmentatives 88 

Inflection of Pronouns 

MODES OF INFLECTION. 

The Pronoun I 

One and Other. 

'* Who 

The Other Pronouns 

FIRST MODE OF INFLECTION. — 
PERSON. 

Person , . . 

Forms of the First Person. . 

Second " .. 

" " Third " . . 

The First Person of a Pro- 
noun 

The Second Person of a Pro- 
noun 

The Third Person of a Pro- 
noun 

SECOND MODE OF INFLECTION. — 
NUMB^ 89 

Number 

A Singular Form 

The Singular Number of a 

Pronoun 

A Plural Form 

The Plural Number 

THIRD MODE OF INFLECTION. — 
GENDER. 

Gender 

A Masculine Form of a Pro- 
noun 

The Masculine Gender of a 
Pronoun 



PAGE. 

A Feminine Form of a Pro- 
noun 

The Feminine Gender of a 
Pronoun 

A Neuter Form of a Pronoun. 

The Neuter Gender of a Pro- 
noun 

FOURTH MODE OF INFLECTION. — 

CASE. 

Case 

A Nominative Case 

A Possessive Case 

An Objective Case 

DECLENSION OF THE PRO- 
NOUN 1 90 

The Form " Hem " 

The Pronouns One and Other. 
Declension of the Pronoun 

Who 

The Form Whose 

EXERCISES. 
INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES. 

Modes of Inflection 91 

FIRST MODE OF INFLECTION. — 
GRADE. 

Grade. 

Normal Forms 

Diminutive Forms 

Formation 

Limitation 

SECOND MODE OF INFLECTION. — 
COMPARISON. 

Comparison 

The Positive Degree 

The Comparative Degree. . . . 

The Superlative Degree 

Limitation of Comparison... 93 

EXAMPLES. 
PERIPHRASTIC COMPARISON. 

Periphrastic Comparison. . . . 
Ascending Periphrastic Com- 

. parison 

Descending Periphrastic Com- 
parison , 

Uses 

EXAMPLES. 

Comparison of Diminutives. . 

IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 

Irregular Comparison 

EXAMPLES 93 

Note .. 

The Latin Comparatives '•' In- 
terior/' &c 



ANALYTICAL INDEX. 



343 



PAGE. 

THERD MODE OF INFLECTION. — 

NUMBER 94 

Number 

Tlie Words Tliis and That.... 

EXERCISES. 
INFLECTION OF VERBS. 

Modes of Inflection 

FIRST MODE OF INFLECTION. — 
TENSE. 

Tense 

A Tense 95 

Regular Tenses 

Periphrastic Tenses 

REGULAR TENSES. 

Present Forms 

The Present Tense of a Verb. 

The Stem of a Tense. ... 

The Stem of the Present 

Tense. 

Past Forms 

The Past Tense 

Stem of the Past Tense 

PERIPHRASTIC TENSES. 

Auxiliaries Used 

Periphrastic Present Stem.... 

Periphrastic Past Stem 

The Other Tenses 

Future Forms 

The Future Tense 

The Future Stem 

Indefinite Forms 

The Indefinite Tense 

The Indefinite Stem 

PARTICIPLES 96 

The Present Participle 

The Past Participle 

The Compound Participle 

COMPOUND TENSES. 

The Compound Tenses 

The Simple Tenses 

Compound Present Forms. .. . 
The Compound Present Tense 
The Compound Present Stem 

Compound Past Forms 

The Compound Past Tense. . . 

The Compound Past Stem 

Compound Future Forms 

The Compound Future Tense. 
The Compound Future Stem. 
Compound Indefinite Forms.. 
The Compound Indefinite 

Tense 97 

The Compound Indefinite 

Stem 



PAGE. 
EXAMPLES. 
SECOND MODE OF INFLECTION. — 
NUMBER. 

Number 

A Singular Form 

The Singular Number 

A Plural Form .* 

The Plural Number 

Plural Forms in use 

Singular Forms in use 

THIRD MODE OP INFLECTION. — 
PERSON. 

Person 

A Form of the First Person. 
" Second Per- 
son 

A Form of the Third Person. 

Forms of the First Person 
^ised 

Forms of the Second Person 

used 98 

Forms of the Third Person 
used 

Formation of the Second Per- 
son 

Formation of the Third Per- 
son 

The Terminations " eth " and 
*'es" 

INFINITIVE FORMS. 
Infinitives 

The Simple Infinitive 

The Compound Infinitive. . . . 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

The Principal Parts 

Reasons for the Name 

STRONG AND WEAK VERBS. 

Strong Verbs 

Weak Verbs 99 

DECLENSION OF THE VERB MOVE. 
CONJUGATION. 

Conjugation 100 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 

MOVE. 

SUMMARY OF THE CONJUGATION. 

1. The Stem of each Tense,. 
3. The Second Person Singu- 
lar of each Tense 

3. The Third Person Singu- 

lar in Present Tenses. . . . 

4. The Third Person Singu- 

lar with Noun, &c 

5. Stem of Tenses not Pre- 

sent 



344 



ANALTTIGAL INDEX. 



PAGE. 

6. Stemwitli a Plural Subject 101 

DECLENSION OP THE VERB WRITE. 

Use of Periphrastic Present 
and Past Tenses ., 

SHALL AND WILL. 

The Auxiliaries Shall and 

Will 

Use 

INDICATIVE AND POTENTIAL 
FUTURE. 

The Indicative Future 

The Potential Future 102 

Formation of Indicative Fu- 
ture. 

Formation of Potential Fu- 
ture 

PARADIGM. 
INFLECTION OF THE COPULA. 

Contrast of Copula and Verb. 

Hypothetical Tense 

Former Inflection of Verbs. . 

DECLENSION OF THE COPULA. 

EXERCISES 103 

IRREGULAR VERBS. 
DIVISION FIRST. — NO REGULAR 

FORMS. 

SECTION FIRST, PAST TENSE AND 

P. PARTICIPLE ALIKE, 

Class First, No change in 

Present Stem 

Class Second, Vowel changed 104 
Class Third, Final Consonant 
Class Fourth, Vowel and 
Consonant changed 

SECTION SECOND. — PAST TENSE 
AND PAST PARTICIPLE DIF- 
FERENT 105 

Class Fifth, Present Tense 

and P. Participle alike 
Class Sixth, Principal Parts 

all different 

Class Seventh, Duplicate Past 

Tense 106 

Class Eighth, Duplicate P. 

Participle 

Class Ninth, Duplicate Past 

Tense and P . Participle . . 

DIVISION SECOND. — HAVING REG- 
ULAR FORMS 107 

SECTION FIRST. PAST TENSE AND 
P. PARTICIPLE ALIKE. 

Class First, R. = Class First 
of Division First, + Regu- 
lar Forms 



PAGE. 

Class Second, R. = Class Sec- 
ond of Division First, 
+ Regular Forms 

Class Third, R. = Class Third 
of Division First, + Regu- 
lar Forms 

Class Fourth, R. = Class 
Fourth of Division First, 
+ Regular Forms 

Class Sixth, R. = Class Sixth 
of Division First, + Reg- 
ular Forms 108 

SECTION SECOND, PAST TENSE 
AND P. PARTICIPLE DIFFERENT. 

Class Tenth, R. — Irregular 
Past Tense Wanting. . . . 

Class Eleventh, R. — Irregular 
Past Participle Wanting. 

Compounds 

Defective Verbs 

Will and Can as Principals. . 109 

Shall and Will as Auxiliaries 

May and Can 

Wit 

Wot 

Past Tenses of Defectives. .. 

Quoth 

EXERCISES. 

* FOURTH MODE OF INFLECTION. 

— DIMINUTION. 

Diminution 

Diminutive Forms , 

Formation of Diminutives. . . 

Apparent Diminutives 110 

Occasional Use 

Limit 

EXAMPLES OP DIMINUTIVES. 

* FIFTH MODE OP INFLECTION. — 

FREQUENTATION. 

Frequentation 

Frequentative Forms 

Formation of Frequentatives 
Limit 

EXAMPLES OF FREQUENTA- 
TIVES Ill 

f VOICE AND MOOD. 

Voice and Mood . . 

Ancient and Foreign Use. . . . 

Voice 

An Active Form 

The Active Voice 

A Passive Form. 

The Passive Voice of a Verb. 
Mood 



ANALYTICAL INDEX. 



345 



PAGE. 

An Indicative Form 

The Indicative Mood of a 

Verb 

A Subjunctive Form 112 

The Subjunctive Mood 

Greek 

Other Languages 

Partial Declension of Moneo. 

(Latin) 

Partial Declension of Niman. 

(Anglo-Saxon) 

INFLECTION OF ADVERBS. 113 

Adverbs of Manner 

Other Adverbs 

The Comparison of Adverbs. 
Declension of Gayly 

IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 
EXERCISES. 

* GENERAL INFLECTION, OR RE- 

DUPLICATION. 

Reduplication 

Method 

Use 

Importance 

EXAMPLES 114 

Nouns 

Pronouns 

Adjectives 

Verbs 

Adverbs , 

Interjections 

f REMAINS OF FORMER INFLEC- 
TIONS. 

Nominatives 

Genitives 

Datives .... 

Accusatives 

Ablatives 

Adlatives 

Instrumentals 

Relations 

Special Paradigm 

* CHAPTER III.— Composition 

OP Words 115 

Composition 

Uses 

A Binary Compound 

A Ternary Compound 

Resemblants 

Modifiers 

Accent 

Noun modifying another 
Noun 



PAGE. 

Adjective modifying Noun or 
Adjective 

French Compounds 

Noun modifying Adjective or 
Participle 

Noun modifying Verb 

Adjective modifying Pro- 
noun 

Double Compounds 

Consolidation. . * 

Distinction 

A Preposition in Composi- 
tion 116 

Possessive Case of a Noun . . 

Plural Stem of a Noun 

Transposition and Omission.. 

A Participial Noun 

Contraction 

Scientific and Proper Names . 

Connecting Vowel 

Connecting Vowel in Greek 
Compounds 

Connecting Vowel in Latin 

Compounds 

EXAMPLES. 
NAMES OF THE SCIENCES. 118 

The Names of the Sciences. . 

Connection 

Other Endings 

EXERCISES, 
NAMES OF PHILOSOPHICAL IN 
STRUMENTS 119 

The Ending — meter 

EXERCISES. 
MISCELLANEOUS GREEK COM- 
POUNDS. 

The Ending — graph, or 
graphy. 

EXERCISES. 

The Ending — meter 

EXERCISES. 

The Endings cracy and arcliy 

EXERCISES. 
LATIN COMPOUNDS. . . 120 

The Ending — ferouH 

EXERCISES. 

The Ending — vorous 

EXERCISES. 

t CHAPTER IV.— Derivation. 

A Primitive Word 

A Real Stem 

A Root 

Root-Stem 



346 



ANALYTICAL INDEX. 



PAGE. 

An Affix.... 

A Prefix 

A Suffix 

Derivation 

A Derivative Word 121 

The General Stem of a Word 

The Theme of a Word 

Inflectional Terminations .... 

Stems and Themes 

Affixes 

Approximate Theme 

MODES OF DERIVATION. 

1. The Strong Derivation. . . . 

2. The Weak Derivation 

FIRST MODE, — STRONG DERIVA- 
TION. 

Methods 

1, Simple Transfer, 

2, Change of Accent 

3, Vowel Change 

4, Change of Vowel and 

Accent 122 

5, Consonant Change , 

6, Consonant and Vowel 

Change 

EXERCISES. 
SECOND MODE. — WEAK DERIVA- 
TION. 

Methods 

1, Use of Prefix 

2, " " Suffix 

3, " " Prefix and Suffix.. 

4, Repetition 

5, Addition 123 

EXERCISES. 
CLASSES OF DERIVATIVES, 

Words of each Class 

1. Verbs from Nouns. . 

2. Nouns from Verbs 

3. Adjectives from Nouns. . 

4. Adjectives from Verbs, . . 

5. Adjectives from Adject- 
ives 

6. Nouns from Adjectives, . 

7. Verbs from Adjectives. . . 

8. Pronouns from Adjec- 
tives 

9. Adverbs from Adjectives. 

10. Adverbs from Pronouns, 

11. Adverbs from Nouns. . . . 

12. Adverbs from Adverbs. . . 

13. Prepositions from Nouns, 

14. Adverbs from Preposi- 
tions 124 



PAGE. 

15. Conjunctions from Verbs 

16. Nouns from Nouns 

17. Verbs from Verbs 

FOREIGN MATERIALS. 

1. Foreign Words 

2. " Stems and Themes 

3. " Affixes 

Original Stock 

Additions 

AFFIXES. 

FIRST, — ANGLO-SAXON PREFIXES, 

A, Be, En, In, Fore, Mis, 

Out, Over, Un, Under, 

With 

SECOND. -5-LATIN PREFIXES, 125 

Ab, Ad, Amb, Ante, Circum, 
Cis, Con, Contra, Counter, 
De, Dis (F.), Dis (L.), Ex, 
Extra, In, Inter, Intro, 
Juxta," Ob, Mai, Per, 
Multi, Post, Pre, Preter,. 
Pro, Re, Retro, S, Se, 
Semi, Sine, Sub, Subter, 
Super, Sur (F.), Trans, 
Ultra, 

THIRD. — GREEK PREFIXES, 126 

A, Amphi, Ana, Anti, Apo, 
Cata, Dia, Dys, Ec, En, 
Epi, Eu, Hyper, Hypo, 
Meta, Para, Pere, Poly, 
Syn 

FOURTH, — NUMERAL PREFIXES, 
(LATIN.) 127 

Uni or Unit, Bis or Bi, Tris 
or Tri, Quadri, Quinque 
or Quintu, Sex or Sexi, 
Septem or Sept, Octo, 
Novem, Decem 

NUMERAL PREFIXES, GREEK. 

Mono, Dis or Di, Tris or Tri, 
Tetra, Penta, Hexa, Hep- 
ta, Octa or Octo, Ennea, 
Deca, Endeca, Dodeca. . . 

PRINCIPAL SUFFIXES , . 128 

ble ; bleness or bility ; nee 
or ncy ; ant or ent ; lent ; 
lence ; ion or ment ; ate ; 
age ; en, fy, fit, or fie ; 
er, or, eer, ier, ian, cian, 
ean, ee, ist, ite, san, zan, 
zen, ast ; ar, ary, ate, ive, 
ster, ado, oso ; ac, ar, ary, 
an, al, ic, ine, ile, ical ; 
hood ; ile ; ice, ty, cy ; 



AN ALT Tic AL INDEX. 



347 



PAGE. 

fice ; acious, aceous, ous 
i ; ive ; ism ; ize ; ics , 
isli ; ed, id ; less ; ly ; 129 
ful, ose ; ness ; ferous 
ory ; ric, dom ; ship 
ude ; ward ; ure ; ery, 
ry, J ; some ; til ; d, t 
m ; or ; and, end ; esce 
ed, d , 

DEVELOPMENT. 

The Development of a Stem 

or a Theme. 

EXAMPLE 130 

STEMS AND THEMES. 
WORD SYNTHESIS 134 

Word Synthesis 

EXAMPLES. 
WORD ANALYSIS. 

Word Analysis 

Systematic Analysis 

Approximate Analysis 135 

Ultimate Analysis 

Ordinary Students 

More Advanced Students. . . . 

EXAMPLES. 
DEFINITIONS. 

Stems and Affixes 

EXAMPLES. 

Secondary Significations 136 

EXAMPLE. 
ABSTRACTION. 

Primary Significations 

Abstract Significations 

EXAMPLE. 

Primitive Nouns 

" Verbs 

ORIGIN OP LANGUAGE. 

A Radicle, or Rootlet 

A Root 

A Stem 

Original Words 

Use 

Later Use 

Modified Use 

First Inflection 137 

Other Inflections 

Interjections 

Secondary Prepositions, &c. . 

Dropping of Inflections 

Copulas 

VARIATION. 

Variation 



E3PA.MPL1J, 



PAGE. 

Methods 

Genera 

FIRST GENUS. — FORMAL VARIA- 
TION. 
SPECIES. — ^2. 

1 . Graphic Variation 

2. Phonic Variation 

3. Combined Variation 138 

SECOND GENUS. — SIGNIFICANT 

VARIATION. 
SPECIES. — 2. 

1. Homogeneous Variation.. 

2. Heterogeneous Variation. . 

THIRD GENUS. — MIXED VARIA- 
TION. 

Mixed Variation 

EXAMPLES. 
DIVERGENCE 139 

Divergence 

Methods 

EXAMPLES. 
SYNONYMS. 

Synonyms 

1 Perfect Synonyms 

'' Approximate Synonyms 

Origin 

Paucity 

Reason 

APPROXIMATE SYNONYMS. 

Classification of Synonyms . . 

First Class (Genus and Spe- 
cies) 

Second Class (Intensity). . . . 

Third " (Activity) 

Fourth ' (Positiveness). 140 

Fifth " (Species) 

Sixth " (Whole and 
Part) 

Seventh Class (Miscellane- 
ous 

EXERCtSES. 
SPECIALTIES 142 

Therefore 

Heretofore 

Somewhere 

Notwithstanding 

Whoever 

Whosoever 

Note 143 

Beware 

Methinks 

Whence and Wliither 

Hitherto 

Yes 



348 



ANALYTICAL INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Nay 

No. 

Hypothesis 

Hypothetical 

PART III.— Syntax. 

Syntax 

Divisions 

CHAPTER I.— Analysis. 

Analysis 

A Sentence 

A Phrase 

EXAMPLES 144 

SECTION FIRST. — ANALYSIS OF 
SENTENCES. 

The Subject of a Sentence.. 
The Predicate of a Sentence . 
The Copula of a Sentence . . . 
The Subject of a Discourse. . 

EXAMPLES. 

A Modifier 

A Connective 

An Element of a Sentence. . . 

Principal Elements 

Subordinate Elements 

Primitive Element , . . 

Expanded Element 

Compound Element 

Complicate Element 145 

Interjections, &c , 

EXAMPLES. 

EXERCISES. 

CLASSES OF SENTENCES. 

1. A Simple Sentence 

2. A Complex Sentence 

3. A Compound Sentence. . . . 

4. A Complicate Sentence. . . 
A Member of a Compound 

Sentence 

An Elementary Sentence 

A Prospective Sentence 

EXAMPLES. 

CLASS I. — SIMPLE SENTENCES. 146 

ORDERS. 

1. A Copulative Sentence... 

2. A Verbal Sentence 

SUB-ORDERS. 

1. An Active Sentence 

2. A Passive Sentence 

3. A Neuter Sentence 

EXAMPLES. 
GENERA. 

1. An Affirmative Sentence. . 

2. A Negative Sentence 



PAGE. 



EXAMPLES. 



SUB-GENERA, 

1. A Positive Sentence 

2. An Interrogative Sentence 147 

COHORTS. 

1. A Definite Question 

2. An Indefinite Question. . . . 

SUB-COHORTS. 

1. A Direct Question 

2. An Indirect Question. . . , . 

EXAMPLES. 
SPECIES. 

1. An Indicative Sentence. . . 

2. A Subjunctive Sentence. . 

3. An Imperative Sentence.. 

4. An Infinitive Sentence. . . . 

5. An Exclamatory Sentence. 

EXAMPLES, 
PRIMITIVE ELEMENTS. 148 

Primitive Subject 

" Copula 

" Predicate 

" Modifier of a Noun 

" Modifier of an Ad- 
jective or Adverb 

CLASS II. — COMPLEX SENTENCES. 
SUB-CLASSES. 

1. A Subjective Sentence .... 

2. A Predicative Sentence. .. 

3. A Mixed Sentence 

ORDERS, &c. 
The Orders, Sub-Orders, &c. . 

EXAMPLES, 
CLASS III. — COMPOUND SEN- 
TENCES. 
SUB-CLASSES. 

1. A Loose Sentence........ 

2. A Compact Sentence 

3. A Close Sentence 149 

EXAMPLES. 
FIRST SUB-CLASS. — LOOSE SEN- 
TENCES. 
DIVISIONS. 

1. A Normal Loose Sentence. 

2. A Reduced Loose Sen- 

tence 

SUB-DIVISIONS. 

1. A Direct Loose Sentence. . 

2. An Inverted Loose Sen- 

tence 

3. A Reversed Loose Sen- 

tence 

EXAMPLES. 



ANALYTICAL INDEX. 



349 



PAGE. 
SECOND SUB-CLASS. — COMPACT 
SENTENCES. 
DIVISIONS. 

1. A Single Compact Sen- 

tence 

2. A Double Compact Sen- 

tence 

3. A Triple Compact Sen- 

tence 

EXAMPLES 150 

SUB-DIVISIONS. 

1. A Direct Compact Sen- 

tence . 

2. An Inverted Compact Sen- 

tence 

3. A Reversed Compact Sen- 

tence 

EXAMPLES. 
SECTIONS. 

1. An Absolute Sentence. . . , 

2. A Conditional Sentence. .. 

EXAMPLES. 
SUB-SECTIONS, 

1. A Contingent Sentence. . 

2. A Hypothetical Sentence. 151 

EXAMPLES. 
THIRD SUB-CLASS. — CLOSE SEN- 
TENCES. 
DIVISIONS. 

1. A Simple Close Sentence. . 

2. A Complex Close Sentence 

3. A Complicate Close Sen- 

tence 

EXAMPLES. 
SUB-DIVISIONS. 

1. A Direct Close Sentence... 

2. An Inverted Close Sen- 

tence 

3. A Reversed Close Sen- 

tence 

EXAMPLES. 
CLASS IV. — COMPLICATE SEN- 
TENCES. 
SUB-CLASSES. 

1. A Simple Complicate Sen- 

tence 

2. A Complex Complicate 

Sentence 

DIVISIONS. 

1. A Subjective Sentence .... 152 

2. A Predicative Sentence. . . 

3. A Mixed Sentence 

SUB-DIVISIONS. 

1. A Co-Subjective Sentence. 



PAGE. 

2. A Co-Predicative Sentence 

3. A Co-Mixed Sentence 

SECTIONS. 

1. A Primary Complicate Sen- 

tence 

2. A Secondary Complicate 

Sentence 

3. A Composite Complicate 

Sentence 

Note 

EXAMPLES. 

SECTION II. — ANALYSIS OF 

PHRASES. 

Tlie Base of a Plirase 

The Elements 153 

CLASSES OF PHRASES. 

1. A Simple Phrase 

2. A Complex Plirase 

3. A Compound Phrase 

4. A Complicate Phrase 

EXAMPLES. 

SIMPLE PHRASES. — SUB-CLASSES. 

TWO. 

1. A Primary Simple Phrase 

2. A Secondary Simple 

Phrase 

EXAMPLES. 
COMPLEX PHRASES. — SUB-CLAS- 
SES. — THREE 154 

1. A Basic Complex Phrase. . 

2. An Adjunctive Comjjlex 

Phrase 

3. A Mixed Complex Phrase. 

EXAMPLES. 

COMPOUND PHRASES. — SUB 

CLASSES. — TWO. 

1. A Loose Phrase 

2. A Compact Phrase 

EXAMPLES. 
COMPLICATE PHRASES. — SUB- 
CLASSES. — TWO. 

1. A Simple Complicate 

Phrase, 

2. A Complex Complicato 

Phrase 

COMPLEX COMPLICATE PHRASES. — 
DIVISIONS. — THREE. 

1. A Basic Phrase 

2. An Adjunctive Phrase. . . . 

3. A Mixed Phrase... 

SUB-DIVISIONS. — THREE. 

1. A Primary Complicate 
Phrase 



360 



ANALYTIGAL INDEX. 



PAGE. 

2. A Secondary Complicate 

Phrase 

3. A Composite Complicate 

Plirase 

EXAMPLES. 
SPECIES. — TEN 155 

1. A Substantive Phrase. . , 

2. An Adjective Phrase. . . . 

3. A Pronominal Phrase. . . . 

4. A Copulative Phrase. . . . 

5. A Verbal Phrase 

6. A Participial Phrase . 

7. An Infinitive Phrase. . . . 

8. An Adverbial Phrase . . . 

9. A Prepositional Phrase... 
10. A Sentential Phrase 

EXAMPLES. 
USES OF PHRASES. 

1. A Substantive Phrase — 4. 

2. An Adjective Phrase — 2. 

3. A Pronominal Phrase — 4. 

4. A Copulative Phrase — 1. 

5. A Verbal Phrase — 1 

6. A Participial Phrase— 3.. 156 

7. An Infinitive Phrase — 1. 

8. An Adverbial Phrase — 1. 

9. A Prepositional Phrase — 1 
10. A Sentential Phrase — 4. . 

SECTION THREE. — TRANSFORMA- 
TION. 

Transformation 

Methods 

An Objective Sentence 

A Double Objective Sentence 
Corresponding Sentences. . . 

FIRST METHOD. — CONVERSION. 

Conversion 

MODES OF CONVERSION. 

1. Verbal to Active Sentence 

2. Active to Verbal Sentence 

3. Verbal to Passive Sentence 

4. Passive to Verbal Sentence 

EXAMPLES 157 

EXERCISES. 
SECOND METHOD. — CONTRACTION. 

Contraction , . . . 

Note 

MODES OF CONTRACTION. 

1. Contraction by Omission. . 

2. Contraction by Substitu- 

tion 

FIRST MODE. — OMISSION. 158 

Parts Omitted 

EXAMPLES. 



PAGE. 

EXERCISES. 159 

SECOND MODE. — SUBSTITUTION. 

1. Contraction of Compact 

Sentences 

2. Contraction of Close Sen- 

tences 

3. Subject of Infinitive Sen- 

tence 160 

4. Subject with a Participle. 

EXAMPLES. 

EXERCISES 162 

THIRD METHOD. — EXPANSION. 1 63 

Expansion 

Use 

EXAMPLES. 

Note 

EXERCISES. 
ORDER OF ANALYSIS. 

The Proper Order 

PARSING 164 

Parsing 

Things to be Done 

Note 

Order of Parsing 

Purposes 

EXAMPLES. 

Note 

MODELS 165 

CHAPTER II.— Synthesis. 179 

Synthesis 

Divisions of Synthesis 

SECTION I. — AGREEMENT. 

Agreement , 

Classes of Agreements 

Corresponding Forms 

EXAMPLES. 

Equivalence .... 

Impossibility 

GENERAL RULE FOR AGREE- 
MENT. 
CLASS I. — AGREEMENT OP PRO- 
NOUNS.. 180 

Principle. . . . . 

SPECIAL RULES. 

1. To represent a Masculine 

Noun, &G 

2. To represent a Doubtful 

Noun, &c 

3. To represent a Singular 

Form, &c 

4. To represent a Noun Plu- 

ral in Form, &c 



ANALYTICAL INDEX. 



351 



PAGE 

5. To represent an Ambigu- 

ous Noun 

6. To represent a Singular 

Collective Noun, &c 

7. To represent a Compound 

Term including a First 
Person 

8. To represent a Compound 

Term including a Second 
Person 

9. To represent a Compound 

Term not including a 
First or Second Person. . 

EXERCISES. 
CLASS II. — AGREEMENT OP AD- 
JECTIVES 181 

Principle 

Rule... 

EXERCISES. 
CLASS Til. — AGREEMENTS OF COPU 
LA AND VERB , 182 

Principle 

RULES. 

1. With Singular Subjects,&c 

2. Where Plural Forms are 

lacl^ing 

3. Subject a Personal Pro- 

noun 

4. Where Personal Forms are 

Jacking , 

5 Subject a Singular Noun, 

Arc. 

G Sul)ject a Relative Pro- 
noun.. 

EXERCISES. 
SECTION II —GOVERNMENT. 183 

Government 

Species of. . 

1 . A Su bject 

2 A Predicate 

3. An Object 

SPECIES I. — GOVERNMENT OF SUB 

JECT. 

RULES. 

1. Subject of Tense Form. .. 

2. Subject of Infinitive 

SPECIES IE. — GOVERNMENT OF 
PREDICATE. 

Rule . 

SPECIES III.— GOVERNMENT OF 
OBJECT. 

Rule.. .. 

EXERCISES 184 



PAGE. 
SECTION III. — ARRANGEMENT. 

1. Normal arrangement of 
Verbal Sentence. . . 

2. Copulative Sentence 

3. Adjectives 

4. Adverbs 

5. Object 

6. Prepositional Phrase. . . . 

7. Separate Adjectives 

8. Consecutive Adjectives.. 

9. Articles 

10. Adverbs of the Same 
Group 

11. Adverbs of Different 
Groups. . 

12. Modal Adverbs.... 185 

13. Variation 

EXAMPLES. 
RULES OF ARRANGEMENT. 

1. Modifiers 

2. Clearness 

3. Emphatic Words 

4. Relative Pronouns 

5. 'And'" and " But" .... 

6. Emphatic Modifier of 
Verb 

7. Closing Preposition 

8. Pronouns 

9. Articles 

10 Indefinite Articles 

1 1. Parentheses, «&c 186 

12. Succession of like Sounds 

13. Interrogative Sentences. . 
14 Order of the Persons. . . 
15. Infinitives 

EXERCISES. 
SECTION IV. — USES OP WORDS 
AND FORMS. . . . 188 

NOUNS. 

Stem 

Possessive Case 

Modifying Noun 

First Use 

Second'' 

Third " ..... 

Fourth " 

Fifth " 

Possessive Case of Noun .... 
Noun followed by Modifiers. 
Joint Limitation 189 

EXAMPLES. 
PRONOUNS. 

Use.. 

Origin - 



352 



' ANALYTICAL INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Personal Pronoun 

Nominative Case 

Possessive Case 

Objective Case 

EXAMPLES. 
SPECIAL FORMS 190 

Forms of Second Person, 

Singular 

The Form "You" 

The Form "It" 

The Form "There" 

Omitted Antecedents 

Use of the Relatives 

Thou and Yon 191 

Pronoun as Predicate 

Possessive Pronouns 

ERRORS. 

'They" 

''Them" 

" As" 

EXAMPLES. 

EXERCISES 192 

ADJECTIVES. 

Uses 

Position 

Order , . . . . 

Qualities expressed by Adjec- 
tives 

EXAMPLE. 
THE POSITIVE DEGREE. 193 

Implication 

The Ideal Standard 

Consequence , 

THE COMPARATIVE DEGREE. 

Implication 

Significance 

Example 

Contrast 

Sequence 

THE SUPERLATIVE DEGREE. 194 

Implication 

Significance 

Contrast 

Sequence 

Superlative of Eminence.. .. 

TERMS OF A COMPARISON. 

The Terms of a Comparison. 

Limit of Terms 

Consequences o . 

MISCELLANY. 

Compounds 

Double Comparatives, &c . . . . 195 

Superior. &c 

"The Two First," &c 



PAGE. 

Adjectives and Verbs 

EXERCISES. 
ARTICLES. 

Limit of Use 

Repetition 

Omission 

Implied Article 196 

Contrasts 

Necessity 

EXAMPLES. 
THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. 

Number of Limited Noun. . . 

Special Cases 

Position 

" Understood ' Article 197 

EXAMPLES. 
THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 

Limitation 

Use 

Old Form, &c 

Present Forms 

Substitution 

Few, &c 

Many „ 

Position 

EXAMPLES 198 

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

"The" 

" This and These " 

"Both" 

" Such" 

The Distributives 

"Each Other," &c 

" Either " and " Neither ". . . 

" Some ' 

" Other ' .,.. 

"Another" 199 

"Any ' 

"Many" 

"Few" 

"One" 

"None" 

"All" 

" Several " 

" What " and " Which " 

EXAMPLES. 

VERBS 200 

Primarily 

Secondarily 

Each Tense 

The Present Tense 

The Past Tense 

The Future Tense 

The Indefinite Tense 



ANALYTICAL INDEX. 



353 



PAGE. 

The Compound Present Tense 201 
Past Tense. . . 
" " Future Tense. 

Indef. Tense. 

EXAMPLES. 
PARTICIPLES 203 

Present Participle 

Use 

Past Participle 

Use 

Compound Participle 

Participles of the Copula. . . . 

EXAMPLES. 
COMPOUND TENSES. .. 203 

Auxiliary and Participle .... 

HYPOTHETICAL TENSES. 

The Copula 

Significance 

The Other Tenses 

Verbal Tenses 

EXAMPLES 204 

INFINITIVES. 

Use 

Simple Infinitives, &c 

The " To " in Infinitives 

Former Use 

Omission 

AUXILIARIES. 

All the Auxiliaries 

" Do," " Have," and "Will," 

"Do" and "Did" 

Termination of Third Per- 
son, Singular 205 

Emphasis 

" Potential" Future Tense.. 

" Shall " and " Will " in Con- 
ditional Sentences 

"Do" and "Have" 

'•May" 

"Can" 

"Must" 

" Might " and " Could " 

"Would" 

"Should" 

EXERCISES. 
DIRECT AND INDIRECT DIS- 
COURSE 206 

Indirect Discourse • . 

Direct Discourse 

The Tenses 

The Changes, 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, 
5th, 6th and 7th 

QUOTATION. 

Quotation 



PAGE. 

Formal Quotation 

Informal Quotation . . 

Direct Quotation 207 

Indirect Quotation 

First Case 

Second Case 

Third Case 

EXAMPLES. 
CONTRACTIONS OP INDIRECT DIS- 
COURSE 208 

Substitution 

EXAMPLES. 
ADVERBS. 

Use 

Adverbs and Nouns 

Old Forms 

" Hence," &c 

Two Negatives 

Modal Adverbs 

Absurdities 209 

CONJUNCTIONS 

Conjunctions 

Elements 

Sentences 

"Both" 

=' And" 

"Lest" 

"But" 

"Or" 

Other Conjunctions 

PREPOSITIONS. 

A Preposition 

Opposites 

Prefixes 

Contradictions 

Absurdities.. 

"Among" 

' ' Between " 

Two Propositions 

EXERCISES. 
SECTION V. — IDIOMS. 

Idioms. . 

Anomalies 

EXAMPLES. 

f CHAPTER III.— Ornamenta- 
tion 212 

Ornamentation 

Figures of Speech 

Ellipsis 

Pleonasm » 

Iteration 

Euphemism 

Circumlocution 



210 



354 



ANALYTICAL INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Anacolutton 

Dialectism 

EXAMPLES. 

Arcliaism 213 

Tranposition 

Use 

PRINCIPAL VARIATIONS. 

1. Subject and Predicate. . . . 

2. Adjectives 

3. Adverbs 

4. Prepositional Phrases. . . . 

5. Object 

6. Periodicity 

7. Reversion 

8. Inversion 

EXAMPLES. 

Simile 214 

Metaphor 

Allegory 

EXAMPLES. 

Antithesis.. ,». .... 

Hyperbole 

Irony 

Metonomy. 215 

Synecdoche 

Personification 

Apostrophe 

Interrogation 

Paralipsis 

Allusion 

APun 

Vision 

Climax 216 

f PART IV.— Prosody. 

Prosody ,.. 

Poetry ..* 

Prose. 

Beauty of Poetic Expression. 

DIVISIONS. 

The Divisions of Prosody... 
CHAPTER I.— Versification. 

SECTION I. — MEASURES. 

Measure 

Essential Characteristic 

Quantity 

Long Syllable 

Short Syllable 217 

Time of a Long Syllable. . . . 

A Great Syllable 

Time of a Great Syllable 

A Verse 

A Foot 

A Measure. 



PAGE. 

Equality of Measures 

Exception 

Scanning 

SECTION II. — FEET 
GENERA. 

1. A Macron 

2. A Dissyllabic Foot 

3. A Trisyllabic Foot 

4. A Tetrasyllable Foot 

GENUS II. — DISSYLLABIC FEET- 
SPECIES. 

1. An Iambus 

2. A Trochee 

3. A Spondee 

4. A Pyrrhic 

GENUS III. — TRISYLLABIC FEET. 
SPECIES. 

1. A Dactyl 

2. An Anapaest 

3. An Amphibrach 218 

4. Tribrach 

5. A Bacchius 

6. A Antibacchius 

7. An Amphimacer. 

8. A Molossus 

EXAMPLES OF SCANNING. 

GENUS IV. — TETRASYLLABIC 

FEET. 

Tetrasyllable Feet 

SPECIES. 

1. A Choriambus 

2. An Antispast 

3. An Ionic a majore 

4. An Ionic a minore 

5. A First Peon 

6. A Second Peon 

7. A Third Peon 

8. A Fourth Peon 

9. A First Epitrite 

10. A Second Epitrite 

11. A Third Epitrite 

12. A Fourth Epitrite 

13. A Di-iambus 

14. A Ditrochee , 

15. A Dispondee 

16. A Dipyrrhic 

Note 219 

EXAMPLES. 

SECTION III. — VERSES. 

CLASSES. 

1. An Iambic Verse ,,., 

2. A Trochaic Verse. ..... ^ . 

3. A Dactylic Verse. 

4. An Anapaestic Verse 



ANALYTICAL INDEX, 



355 



PAGE. 

5. An Ampliibracliic Verse . . 

6. An Ampliimaceric Verse. . 

7. A Choriambic Verse 

8. A Peonic Verse 220 

ORDERS. 

1. A Pure Verse 

2. A Mixed Verse 

GENERA. 

A Meter 

1. A Monometer 

2. A Dimeter 

3. A Trimeter .... » 

4. A Tetrameter .... ........ 

5. A Pentameter 

6. A Hexameter ^ 

7. A Heptameter 

8. An Octometer 

SPECIES. 

1. Blank Verse 

3. 'Rhymed Verse 

3. Alliterative Verse 

4. Paralleled Verse. 

5. Imitative Verse 

6. Annominative Verse. . . . 

7. Euphuistic Verse 

8. Lipogrammatic Verse. . . . 

9. Macaronic Verse 

10. Acrostic Verse 

SECTION IV. — PAUSES. 

Poetic Pauses 

1. Tlie Final Pause. ........ 

2. The Caesural Pause 

3. The Demi- Caesural Pause. 
The Time of these Pauses. .. 221 

SECTION v. — NOTATION. 

Poetic Notation 

EXAMPLES. 

CHAPTER II.— Ornamenta- 
tion. 
Ornamentation 

SECTION I. — RHYME. 

Rhyme 

A Rhyme 

A Single Rhyme 

A Double Rhyme 222 

A Triple Rhyme 

A Perfect Rhyme 

An Imperfect Rhyme 

A Rich Rhyme 

Half Rhyme 

Assonance 

EXAMPLE. 

Old Rhymes , 



PAGE. 

Use of Imperfect Rhymes. . . 

Terminal Rhymes 

Initial Rhymes 

Line Rhymes 223 

SECTION II. — ALLITERATION. 

Alliteration , 

Use 

EXAMPLES. 

Abuse of Alliteration 

SECTION III. — PARALLELISM. 

Parallelism 

SPECIES. 

1. Synonymous Parallelism. . 

EXAMPLES. 

2. Antithetic Parallelism .... 224 

EXAMPLES. 

3. Constructive Parallelism. . 

EXAMPLES 225 

SECTION IV. — OTHER ORNAMENTS. 

I. Imitation 

EXAMPLES. 

II. Annomination 226 

EXAMPLE. 

III. Euphuism 

EXAMPLE. 

IV. Lipo-grammatism. .... . . 

EXAMPLES. 

V. Macronism 

EXAMPLE, 

VI. Acrosticism 227 

EXAMPLE. 

Note 

CHAPTER III.— Adaptation. 

1. Iambic Verse 

2. Trochaic Verse 

EXAMPLE. 

3. Amphibrachic Verse. . . . ♦. 

EXAMPLE. 

4. Dactylic and Anapaestic 

Verses 

5. Occasional Feet 

The Macron 

The Spondee 228 

EXAMPLES. 

The Pyrrhic. 

EXAMPLES. 

The Tribrach 

EXAMPLES. 

The Long Feet 

The Amphimacer, &c 

EXAMPLE. 

The Trochee in Heroic Verse. 229 

EXAMPLES. 



35G 



ANALYTICAL INDEX. 



PAGE. 
The Ainphibracli in Heroic 

Verse 

EXAMPLE. 

Tlie Dactyl in Heroic Verse . . 

EXAMPLE. 

The Anapaest in Heroic Verse 

EXAMPLE. 

The Heroic Verse 

EXAMPLE. 

Common Octosyllabic Verse. 

EXAMPLE 230 

Tetrasyllable Feet 

CHATER IV.— Arrangement. 

Arrangement 

A Stanza 

Note 



CLASSES OF STANZAS. 

1. A Couplet 

EXAMPLE. 

A Distich 

2. ATriplet 

EXAMPLE. 

3. A Quatrain 

4. A Quintette 

5. A Sestette 

6^ A Septette 

7. An Octave 

The Class of a Stanza 

The Number of the Class. .. 
Blank Verse 231 



EXAMPLES. 

Rhymed Verse 

EXAMPLES. 

I. Continuous 



EXAMPLE. 

II. Couplets 232 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Tetrameters 

2. Heroic Couplets 

Note 

3. Hexameters (Iambic) 

Note 233 

4. Heptameters 

The Service Meter, or Com- 
mon Meter 

The Short Meter.. 

Terminal Amphibrach 

5. Octometers 

The Long Meter. 234 

The Ballad Stanza 

EXAMPLES. 

III. Triplets 

EXAMPLES. 



PAGE. 

1. Iambic Tetrameters 

2. Iambic Pentameters 235 

3. Trochaic Tetrameters 

IV. Quatrains 

EXAMPLES. 

V. Quintettes 236 

EXAMPLE. 

VI. Sestettes 



EXAMPLE. 

VII. Septettes 

Rhyme Royal 

EXAMPLE. 

VIII. Octaves 237 

EXAMPLE. 

Ottava Rima 

EXAMPLE. 

IX. Nine Line Stanzas 

Sp(Micerian Stanza 

EXAMPLE. 

X. Ten Line Stanzas 238 

EXAMPLE. 

XI. Eleven Line Stanzas. . . . 

EXAMPLE. 

XII. Twelve Line Stanzas. . . 

EXAMPLE. 

XIII. Thirteen Line stanzas. 239 

EXAMPLE. 

XIV. Fourteeen Line Stanzas 

EXAMPLE. 

Variations of the Sonnet .... 

A Strophe 

Note 240 

SUB-CLASSES OP STANZAS. 

1. A Homogeneous Stanza. . . 

2. A Heterogeneous Stanza. . 

ORDERS, 

1. A Continuous Rhymed 

Stanza 

2. A Consecutive Rhymed 

Stanza 

3. An Alternate Rhymed 

Stanza 

4. A Remote- Rhymed Stanza 
Varieties of the Stanza 

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 

CHAPTER v.— PoEMS. 243 
A Poem 

CLASSES. 

1. A Lyric Poem 

2. A Dramatic Poem 

3. , A Lectic Poem 



ANALYTICAL INDEX. 



357 



PAGE. 
CLASS I. — LYRIC POEMS. 
GENERA. 

1. A Sacred Poem 

2. A Secular Poem 

GENUS I. — SACRED POEMS. 
SPECIES. 

1. A Psalm 

2. A Hymn 

GENUS II. — SECULAR POEMS. 
SPECIES. 

1. A Song 

2. A Ballad 

a. An Ode 

4. An Elegy 

CLASS II. — DRAMATIC POEMS. 
GENERA. 

1. A Tragedy 

2. A Comedy 

3. A Mask 

GENUS II. — COMEDIES. 
SPECIES. 

1. A Regular Comedy 

2. A Farce 

CLASS III. — LECTIC POEMS. 244 
ORDERS. 

1. A Didactic Poem 

2. An Aesthetic Poem 

ORDER I. — DIDACTIC POEMS. 
GENERA, 

1. A Historic Poem 

2. An Argumentative Poem. 

3. A Descriptive Poem 

4. A Hortatory Poem 

5. A Satiric Poem 

GENUS I. — HISTORIC POEMS. 
SPECIES. 

1. An Epic Poem 

2. A Chronicle 

3. An Anecdote 

ORDER II. — AESTHETIC POEMS. 
SPECIES. 

1. A Romance 

2. A Pastoral Poem 

3. An Idyl 

4. A Fable 

5. An Epistle 

6. A Parody 

7. A Burlesque 

8. A Macaronic Poem 

9. Task Poetry 245 

10. An Epigram 

EXAMPLE. 



PAGE. 

CHAPTER VI.— Poetic License 
Poetic License 

EXPEDIENTS. 

1. Contraction of Words. . . 

2. Combination of Words. . 

3. Antiquated Pronuncia- 
tion 

4. Antiquated Inflection. . . . 

5. Antiquated Words and 
Phrases 

6. Constant Use of Figures. 

7. Changing the Accent. . . . 

8. Imperfect Rhymes 

9. Imperfect Feet 

10. Imperfect Stanzas 

ABUSES op poetic LICENSE. 

1. Too frequent resort to it. . 

2. Indiscriminate use of Thou 

and You 

3. Confounding the Tenses . . 246 

4. Corrupting Words 

EXAMPLES. 

CHAPTER VII.— Poetic Analy- 
sis 248 

Poetic Analysis 

Process 

Additional Work 

" Philological Method " 

EXAMPLE. 
EXERCISES. 

t APPENDIX 255 

CHAPTER I.— Composition. 

INTRODUCTION. 

PART I. — An Elementary 

Course 256 

Principal Points 

1. Copying ; 

2. Lists of Names 

3. Names of Parts 

EXAMPLE. 

4. Qualities of Things 

EXAMPLE. 

5. Uses 

EXAMPLE. 

6. Writing from Memory , . 

7. Description of Things. . . 

EXAMPLE. 

8. Description of Places... 

9. Description of Events, 
or Narration 

EXAMPLE. 



368 



ANALYTICAL INDEX, 



PAGE. 

10. Letters 

EXAMPLES. 

PART II. — An Intermediate 

CounsE 263 

Section 1 

Section 2 

Section 3 

PART III.— A Higher 

Course 262 

Design 

SECTION I. — PROSE. 

1. Theme 

2. Plan 

3. Filling up 

4. Study and Revision, &c. . . 

PLANS. 

Plans and Themes 

EXAMPLES OP PLANS (GENERAL 
THEMES). 

Development of Plans 

EXAMPLE. 

Particular Themes 

EXAMPLE. 
SECTION II. — POETRY. 

Special Directions 

Nonsense Verses 

Sense Verses 

PART IV.— Course of Self-In- 
struction 270 

1st Step 

2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 
Steps 

LIST OF THEMES. 

CHAPTER II.— Exercises. 

CHAPTER III.— Selections. 280 

* 1. From the Anglo-Saxon 
Chronicle .... 

2. From Wace's Coronation 

of Arthur 281 

3. From a Charter of Henry 
III 

4. Robert's Chronicle 

5. From the Vision of Piers. 
Plowman 282 

6. From the Narrative of 
Mandeville 

7. From the Qerke's Tale, 

by Chaucer 283 

8. English Courage, by For- 
tescue 

9. Jack Cade, by Robert 
Fabian 284 



PAGE. 

10. From the Geneva Bible. . 

11. From the Authorized 
Version 

12. From the Fairie Queen, 
by Spenser 

13. Angels, Men and Beasts, 

by Hooker 286 

14. Murellus on Caesar 

15. Tragedy, by Milton 287 

16. From Samson Agonistes. 

17. The Soul's Progress 288 

18. Happiness 289 

19. The Passions 290 

20. Procrastination 292 

21. Italy. . . 293 

22. Rural Sounds 294 

23. Character of Christ 295 

24. Waterloo 295 

25. The Lamarckians 296 

26. Man and Nature 297 

27. The Puritans 298 

28. The Passing of Arthur. . 299 

29. Reason and Truth 300 

30. Sunrise on the Hills 

31. Evening on the St. Law- 
rence 301 

32. April 302 

33. The Study of Language. 

34. Libraries 303 

35. Reading 304 

36. The Preacher 305 

37. Love of Fame - 306 

38. The Appian Way 307 

39. Ancient Arabia 308 

40. The Rain 309 

41. The May-Flower 

42. Short Words 311 

43. Neutrality 

44. Boucher 312 

45. Higher Anticipations. . . . 314 

46. Farmers 315 

47. Shallow Culture 317 

48. Science 318 

CHAPTER IV.— Notes, 319 

1. Phonetics 

2. Phonetic Alphabets 323 

3. Initial W and Y. . 

4. Transitive and Intransi- 
tive Verbs 325 

5. Definitions of the Verb.. 326 

6. The Copula 327 

7. Gender 328 

8. " Brethren," " Dies," &c.. 



ANALYTICAL INDEX. 



369 



PAGE. 

9. Plural of a Name and 
Title 

10. Possessive Case 

11. The Form " Hem " 329 

12. Comparison of " Good " 
and "Bad" 

13. Forms of the Second Per- 
son 

14. Inflections 

15. " Soon," " Often," &c. . . . 330 

16. Activity, &c 

17. Origin of Language 

18. Multiple Rhymes 331 

19. Prepositional Phrases... 332 



PAGE. 

20. Compound Participles, &c. 

21. Charts 

22. "Poet,"&c 

23. Grimm's Law 

24. "By and by" 333 

25. Voices of the Verb 

26. Where, Whence and 
Whither 

27. Derivation 

ANALYTICAL. INDEX. . 334 

Word Chart No. 1 360 

Word Chart No. 2 361 

Phrase Chart 362 



330 A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 

WORD CHART.-No. 1. 

Class I. — Nouns. 



Sub- Classes. 



1. Proper. 2. Common. 

I Divisions. J 

1. Full. 2. Defective. 

Sub-Divisions. 



1. Masc. 2. Fern. 3. Doubt. 4 Neut. 
Metaphyseal J '• Concrete. „ . 1. Mate™, 

Sub-Classes ] ^ ^b^tract. °' Noans. -j j p^mcpiai. 



Class II. — Adjectives. 



Sub- Classes. 



1. Descriptive. 2. Definitive. 

Divi- I s ions. 

1. Qualitative, 2. Material. 3. Participial. 

Divi- sions. 



1. Articles. 2. Numerals. 3. Pronominals. 

Sub-Divisions. | Sub- 1 Divisions. 

1. Def. 2. Indef. 1. Cardinal. 2. Ordinal.^ 

Sub-Divisions. 



1. Demon. 2. Distrib. 3. Indef. 4. Interrog. 5.Kelative. 
Groups of Adjectives. 



1. Proper. 3. Replicative, 5. Singular. 

2. Periodical. 4. Combinative. 6. Plural. 



Class III. — Pronouns. 



t — 

Sub- 


Classes. 


1. Pers. 2. Relat. 3. Interrog. 4. Poss. 5. Indef. 
Class IV.— Copulas. 


Class V. — Verbs. 


Sub- 


Classes. 



1. Regular. 2. Irregular. 
Groups of Verbs. 



1. Copulative. 2. Defective. 3. Redundant. 4. Auxiliar}', 



OF THE ENGLISH LANG UAGE. 361 

WORD CHART.-No. 2. 

Class VI. — Adverbs. 



Sub- 



Classes. 



1. Limiting. 2. Conjunctive. 

I Divisions. 

1. Fixed. 2. Mobile. 

Grottps or Adverbs. 



1. Modal. 3. Place. 5. Manner. 7. Number. 9. Interrogation. 

2. Time. 4. Cause. 6. Degree. 8. Order. 10. Negation. 



Class VII. — Prepositions. 



Sub- Classes. 



1. Simple. 2. Compound. 

Dlvi- sions. Divi- sions. 



1. Substan. 2. Adjec. 1. Phrase. 2. Double. 

Class VIII. — CoN.rtnsrcTioNS. 



Sub- Classes. 



1. Absolute. 2. Relative. 

I Divisions. | 

1. Verbal. 2. Adjec. 3. Substan. 4. Phrase. 5. Composite. 

Class IX. — Interjections. 



Sub- 



Classes. 



1. Inarticulate. 2. Articulate. 

Divi- sions. 



1. General. 2. Special. 

Sub-Divi- I sions. 

f 

1. Joj'ous. 2. Sorrowful. 3. Contemptuous. 

Special Class. — Exclamations. 



Sub- 



Classes. 



1. Emotional (Interjections). 2. Rational. 

Divisions. 



1. Compellatives. 1. Responsivcs. 3. Fragments. 



362 



A COMPLETE SCIENTIFIC GRAMMAR 




i^edmen pages of Descriptive Catalogue of the AUTHORS^ PUB. CO. 

TOPICAL INDEX. 

The object of tlie Topical Index is to serve readers and buyers. 
Every one has some Topic that specially interests liim ; and attention is 
more likely to be arrested by Subjects than by names. 

"While it facilitates reference by general readers, it affords conveni- 
ence to bookbuyers' "finding" and accuracy in booksellers' orders. 

PAGE. 

Beauty. — Women's Secrets, or How to be Beautiful. A reliable toilet 

maimal, by Louise Capsadell, 12ino, cl. 75c. ; pr. 25 32 

Buccaneers, the. A historical novel, by Capt. Randolph Jones, 

12mo, cl. $1.75. ; pr. $1 21 

Christ, Life of. The Beauty of the King, by Rev. A. H. Holloway. 

A brief Life of Christ. 12mo, cl. |1 ; gilt $1.25 38 

Church Amusements. Deacon Cranky, the Old Sinner, by Rev. 

Geo. Guiret — church fairs, shows, etc., 12mo, cl. $1.50 14 

Clerg'y. Rev. Green Willing wood, or Life Among the Clergy — the 

voluntary system — by Rev. Robt. Fisher, 12mo, cl. $1.25 15 

Colorado. Camping in Colorado, with suggestions to Gold- Seekers, 

Tourists and Invalids, by S. A. Gordon, 12mo, cl. $1 37 

Demonetization. See ** Gold and Silver." 

Ecclesiolo^y. Fundamental Idea and Constitution of the New Testa- 
ment Church, A\ith a supplement on Ordination, by E. J. Fish, D.D., 12mo, 
cl. $2.00 11 

Enclianted Library. (For Young Folks.) Queer Little Wooden Cap- 
tain, by Sydket Datre, cl. 90c 34 

Harry Ascott Abroad, by Matthew White, Jr., cl. 60c 34 

Eng-lish Grrammar. A Complete Scientific Grammar of the English 
Langniage, for Schools and private learners, by W. Colegrove, Prest W. Va. 
CoUege, 12mo, cl. $1.25 30 

Europe. Harry Ascott Abroad, by Matthew White, Jr. , cl. 60c 40 

Evolution and Progress ;* an Exposition and Defence — Evolution philo- 
sophically expounded, by Rev. Wm. I. Gill, 12mo, cl. $1.50 „ 8 

Germany. Linda, or TJeber das Meer ; a delightful book for Young- 
Folks, of scenes in Germany, by H. L. Crawford, sq. 12mo, cl. $1.25 29 

Harry Ascott Abroad, by Matthew White, Jr., cl. 60c. 34 

Gift Books. Appropriate in subject-matter and style of binding. 

Crawford's Linda, red edges, $1.25 29 

Fisher's Life Among the Clergy, fuligilt, beveled, $1.25 15 

Holloway' s Beauty of the King, fuligilt, beveled, $1.25 38 

Hubner's Wild Flowers, gilt top, beveled, $1.25 ., 30 

Riggs's Mystic KeJ^ red edges, beveled, 75c 27 

Sumners' Poems, 8vo, illustrated, full gilt, $4 26 

Gold and Silver. Wliat is Demonetization of Gold and Silver ? by 
M. R. PiLON, Svo, pr. 75c 17 

Government. Is Our Republic a Failure ? A politico-historal work, 

by E. H. Watson, 12mo, cl. $1.50 18 

Grammar. See " English Grammar." 

Hammock Stories. Comprising N'dbody's Business by author of 
"Dead Men's Shoes," Zi/^y's Lover by author of "Climbing the Mountains," 
and Our Winter Eden by Mrs. Gen'l Wm. L. Cazneau, sq. 12mo, cl. $1.25 31 

History. For political history see "Government" and " Samana," 
for historical romance see " Buccaneers." 

Language. The Universe of Language, with Notation for all lan- 
guages, Phonetics, etc., by E. H. Watson, 12ino, cl. |1.50 19 

(5) 



6 THE authors' PUBLISHTNa COMPANY'S DESCEIPTIVE LIST. 

Manuscripts. Maniiscript Manual — How to prepare mss. for the 
press, 8vo, pr. 10c 33 

Xoyels, of recent publication, 12mo, cloth, ink and gold. 

'Twixt Wave and Sky, by F. E. Wadleigh, $1.25 47 

In Dead Earnest, by Julia Breckinridge, $1.25 25 

Our Wedding Gifts, by Amanda M. Douglas, $1 24 

The Buccaneers, by Randolph. Jones, cl. $1.75 ; pr. $1 21 

Shadowed Perils, by M. A. Avery, $1 23 

Her Waiting Heart, by Louise Capsadell, $1 23 

Irene, a prize story, by B. P. Baer, $1 22 

For Novels in paper see "Satchel Series." 

Ordination. See " Ecclesiology." 

Paper. Author's Manuscript Paper, per ream, $1 and $1.25 35 

Philosophy. Analytical Processes, or the Primary Principle of Philo- 
sophy, by Rev. Wm. I. Gill. Logic, Ontology, Mathematics. 12mo, cl. |2 5 

Phonetics. Watson's Universe of Language, $1.50 19 

Colegrove's Complete Scientific Grammar, $1.25 20 

Poeti-y. 

Poems, by S. B. and C. A. Sumner, cl. 8vo, illt'd, $4 ; 12mo, $2.50 26 

Wild Flowers, by C. W. Hubner, 12mo, cl. $1 : gilt $1.25 30 

Cothurnus and Lj-^re, by E. J. Harding, 12mo, cl. $1 28 

Voice of a Shell, by O . C. Auringer, {Satchel Series,) 40c 43 

Political Economy. The Race for Wealth, by Jas. Cokley, 12mo, 

pr. 50c 33 

First Steps in Political Economy, by M. R. Leverson, 12mo, cl. $1.25 34 

What is Demonetization? by M. R. Pilon, 8vo, pr. 75c 17 

A Day's Work, by M. R. P1L05 33 

Value and Use of Money, by M. R. Pilon 33 

Religrion and Philosophy. Christian Conception and Experience, by 
Rev. Wm. I. Gill, 12mo, cl. $1 16 

Religrion. See "Christ," "Church," "Clergy," " Ecclesiology," 
"Spiritualism," "Resurrection," and "Revival Work." 

Resurrection of the Body. Does the Bible Teach It? A biblical and 

logical treatise, by E. Nisbet, D.D., 12mo, cL $1 13 

Revival Work. Life for a Look, A useful tract for Religious Re- 
vivals, by Rev. A. H. Holloway, pr. 15c 38 

Samana. Our Winter Eden, with the Seward- Samana Mystery, by 

Mrs. Gen'l Wm. L. Cazneau, {Satchel Series,) pr. 30c 42 

Satchel Series. Square 12mos, paper covers 41 

Glenmere 25c. Nobody's Business 30c. 

Poor Theophilus 25c. Rosamond Howard 25c. 

Bera, or C. & M. C. RR 40c. Lily's Lover 35c. 

How it Ended 25c. Story of the Strike, illt'd 30c. 

Only a Tramp 50c. Voice of a Shell 40c. 

Who Did It? 30c. Bpnny Eagle 25c. 

Our Peggotties 25c. Prisons Without Walls 25c. 

Our Winter Eden 30c. Traveller's Grab Bag 25c. 

Appeal to Moody— Satire, lOc. 

Scrap Books, and How to Make Them, by E. W. Gurley, cl. 40c. . . 36 

Social Amusements. The Mystic Key ; a Poetic Fortune Teller, by 
E. E. RiGGS. Over 300 quotations ingeniously arranged to answer questions ; 
32mo,cL75c 27 

Spelling Reform. See "Phonetics." 

Spiritualism. Spiritual Communications, from the eternal world, 
edited by Henby Kiddle, A.M., Supt. Pub. Schools N. Y. City. An earnest 
and startling book, 12mo, cL $1.50 39 

Toilet. See "Beauty." 

Travels. See " Colorado," " Europe," " Germany" and " Samana." 

Young Folks' Books. 

Crawford's Linda, or TJeber das Meer, cl. $1.25 29 

Dayre's Queer Little Wooden Captain, cl. 90c 34 

White's Harry Ascott Abroad, cl. 60c 34 



THE AUTHOKS PUBLISHING COMPANY S DESCRIPTIVE LIST. 



17 



What IS Demonetization? 

Ways to arrive at the Demonetization of Gold and Silver. 
By M. R PiLON, author of "Prices and Profits," "History 
of Mexico," etc. Octavo, 18G pp., paper. 75 cents. 




Discusses the currency question in an original, 
forcible, and entertaining style. Has biought 
together a great amount of varied infonnation 
upon the whole subject of money. Unques- 
tioned ability in his liandling of it. — Baltimore 
Methodist Protestant. 

LEGAL CENT, 

SHORT WEIGHT, WITH A TIKE ADDED. 





Pull of common sense. Valu- 
able for its facts, thoughts, and 
suggestions. — Troy Daily Whig. 

The valuation of gold and sil- 
ver currency is fully discussed, 
and offers some new ideas wor- 
thy attention. — Toledo Com'mer'l. 

In an interesting and popular 
style, and contains much useful 
information. Oakland{Cal)N'ews. 

LEGAL CENT, 

HAVIXG FULL WEIGHT OF METAL. 





Sound financial principles. 
Louisville Commercial. 

Especially valuable to 
financiers. Jersey City Daily 
Journal. 

The author is a merchant 
who has extensively stud- 1 
ied the currency problem. 
His hits are often sharp 
and incisive. — Cincinnati 
Daily Star. 

DOMESTIC DOLLAR 

MADE OF SILVER, BRONZE, 
AND IRON. 





TRADE 
DOLLAR, 

FOR FOREIGN 

COMJIKRCE. 




18 THE AUTHORS PUBLISHING COMPANY S DESCRIPTIVE LIST. 

Is Our Republic a Failure? 

A Discussion of the Eights and Wrongs of the North and 
THE South. By E. H. Watson, author of " United States 
and their Origin," etc. English cloth, ink and gold, 12mo, 
436 pp. Second edition. Price $1.50. 

Any private or public library in this country which overlooks the politi- 
cal history of our Republic can hardly be considered complete, and there is 
probably no work which is so essential in such connection as this volume. 
Every man who takes active part in political affairs will comprehend his 
relation and duties to the public much better after reading this book, and 
every young man who expects or desires to hold any public office should 
study it as a preparatory course for his calling. 

Is peciiliarly a book for the times. — Cleveland Plaindealer. 

Of lively importance and deep political sigiiificatf&e. — Boston Traveller. 

In a spirit of genuine candor and unswerving impartiality. — New York Sun. 

It is fair, candid, impartial, the whole subject well treated. — Hon. J. H. Blake, 
of Boston. 

"Will arouse every reader to a broader comprehension and profbunder interest in 
the science and possibilities of government. — Indianapolis Journal. 

I like the spirit of the book, its comprehensive patriotism, its liberal spirit, and its 
healing counsels. — Hon. George S. Hillakd, author of ''Franklin Headers," etc. 

Thoroughly earnest and honest. Its patriotism is broad and comprehensive, its 
conclusions logical, and its suggestions wise, liberal, and timely. — Boone (la.)Eeptiblican. 

I read the manuscript with much interest ; an interest belonging to the arguments 
themselves, but now increased by the perfection given to the form and style.— Hon. 
Martin Brimmer, Boston. 

Lucid and just. The method of the argument, the facts on which it proceeds, and 
the conciliatory spirit which invests them, contribute to the book a value which can 
not be too highly estimated. — Gen. John Cochrane. 

Treats of the real constitutional princi))les which comprise our system of govern- 
ment in relation to the issues which divide the country into sectional and adverse par- 
ties, in a clear and liberal spirit, and from an entirely uidependent standpoint. — Boston 
Herald. 

The author treats the whole subject concisely, and with that clearness which has 
so often made the intuitive quickness of woman's intellect more than a match for man's 
plodding and ponderous reason. Deserves a wide circulation, and thorough perusal. 
— The South, New York. 

The })rincii)les of American statesmanship which it asserts must essentiallj' pre- 
vail, unless we are so soon to fall from our high plane of constitutional republicanism. 
I shall spare no exertion to promote the knowledge of such an able and impartial and 
statesmanlike compendium of our present political philosophy. — ^HoN. John Quincy 
Adams, Mass. 

Clearly expressed, and the argument is closely and ably maintained. The tone 
and the temper of the writer are beyond praise. Tliey are as valuable as they are rare. 
They are those of a patriotic and philosophical observer of men. The like spirit every- 
where diffused among our people would make fraternal union as certain as desirable; 
and, if brought to the discussion of public affairs, would secure the adoption of wise 
and beneficent counsels. — Hon. Geo. H. Pendleton, Ohio. 

We cheerfully recommend this volume. — University Press, Madison, Wis. 

It deals with parties and with party leaders, and closes with a plea for tolerance of 
opinion and national unity. — Baltimore Gazette. 

A serious, if not startling, question is here propounded^-one which requires the care- 
ful consideration of every thoughtful mind, when the extent of the issues embraced 
becomes realized. The discussion treats of the relations of the constitutional principles 
of our government to the sectional and partisan issues of the present day. It reviews 
the Northern arguments regarding secession, including the construction to be placed on 
the original wording of the Constitution ; the powers reserved to the people ; the idea 
of whom the "People" consists ; the difference between Revolution and Secession ; 
the question of "Conquest" and military force ; Civil and Religious Liberty ; and Our 
Fathers and the Work of To-day. It then takes up the doctrine of "State Rights." 
The author passes on the great issues of the country in detail and the present aspect 
of political parties. In the last section are embraced, amon^ other special topics, 
"Northern and Southern Radicalism," "The Will of the People," "The Issue before 
the People," " Powers of the Government," and " Perils of the Hour." The discussion 
is maintained in a clear, able manner, and the generous, impartial spirit shown is 
praiseworthy in the highest degree. Observation and painstaking thought are obser\'a- 
Dle in every line, and Ihe book is well worth the perusal of all who take any interest 
in the affairs of the nation.— Epitome qf Literature, Philadelphia. 



THE AUTHOES PUBLISHING COMPANY S DESCBIPTIVE LIST. 19 

The Universe of Language. 

I. Nature, Developme^iU cind Jr*eculiarities of Language. — * 

II. Steucture, icith Uniform Notation and Classification 
of Vowels^ adapted to all Languages, — III. Use, L*roposed 
Changes, Phonology, Phonotopy, and the Spelling Meform, 
rV. Appendix, Spelling Reform Association, etc. — V. Index 
(in front of book). By the late Geoege Watson, Esq., of 
Boston. Edited and prepared for the press by his daughter, 
E, H.Watson, author of "Is Our Eepublic a Failure*?" etc. 
Cloth extra, tinted paper, 12mo., 344 pp. Price $1.50. 

The whole volarae is scholarly. — Illust. Christian 'Weekly, New York. 

Must play a part in approximating the language to a desirable uniformity. — Quincy 
(III.) Wliig. 

Is a learned contribution to the permanent advantage and advancement of phi- 
lology. — Penn Record. 

An interesting and valuable worli:. There is much in it to attract the attention of 
philologists. — Boston Traveller. 

Is specially creditable to the author. A great deal of philological information is 
condensed in it, and presented in an attractive form. — Epitome of Literature, Phila. 

An important and valuable work, treated in a broad and comprehensive form. 
Mr. Watson's views are regarded favorably by Prof. Whitnej', Prof. Haldeman, Prof. 
Marsh, and many others. — New York Mail. 

Shows throughout careful and conscientious investigation, and abounds in inge. 
nious suggestions which can not but be of great value, particularly to educators. It is 
so lucidly written, and the several topics are developed so naturall3% that ajiy reader 
who is interested in linguistic discussions will, if he once begins its perusal, go through 
it with increasing pleasure. — Boston Journal. 

beautifully gotten up. Its conception is novel, and its views and speculations aro 
exceedingly ingenious, and many very striking. It evinces great and careful research, 
and must prove a valuable aid to every student of the arrangement and relations of 
varied languages, and especially to writers and instructors. * * * Possesses great 
interest and importance. — Plaitshurg (N. Y.) Republican. 

Mr. Watson's intention was to systematize the universal elements of language, 
arranging them so that in the result the natural sounds of the human voice, as con- 
tained in spoken tongues, could be applied in this one system to the exponential pro- 
nunciation of all languages, Oriental as well as European. Altogetber, it is a curious 
and interesting contribution to one of the topics of the day. — American Bookseller. 

Is an exceedingly interesting contribution to the literature of philology. It advo- 
cates the adoption of a uniform notation and classification of vowels, and suggests a 
more consistent method than has heretofore been broached. Is very attractive read- 
ing, and manifests not only a thorough familiarity with the subject, but deep thought 
and clear reasoning. It is pleasing in stjle and calm in argument, and merits a careful 
and respectful consideration. — Boston Gazette. 

Miss Watson believes as earne.stly as did her father in the necessities of a reform 
in the language, and supplements the work begun by him with force and ability. It is 
written with a simplicity and directness which malies it doubly valuable. Its appear- 
ance at this time, when there is so much active interest taken in the subject upon 
which it treats, is exceedingly opportune; and we commend it to the attention of phi- 
lologists and students in general. — Boston Transcript. 

The late Mr. George Watson had for more than fifty years devoted his leisure 
to philological and linguistic studies, and he left in manuscript a system of notation 
and classification of vowels for all languages. * * * The recent convention of phi- 
lological societies at Philadelphia, and the vigorous attempts now made to improve 
the English language, have induced Miss Watson to publish her father's system. Miss 
Watson has added to this carefully developed system of notation a half dozen prelim- 
inary essays on the natiire of language, making a popular summary of the present con- 
dition of linguistic science. Entertaining reading. — Boston Advertiser. 

She contributes to tlie question the facts about twin boys, born in Massachusetts, 
of German parentage, who refused to make any use of the English tongue, spoken in 
their presence; but they invented a language of their ovm, in which they communi- 
cated with each other in the most lively manner; nor would they ever learn or use any 
English word until they were compelled to at school. By the stixdy of the few elements 
of human speech common to all languages, we are coming to see that there are no 
unsurpassable difficulties in acquiring the promxnciation of any language. The essay 
will repay careful study, and is woithy the attention of all those interested iu the 
Btudy of the language. — Sartford Courant. 



36 THE author's PUBIilSHTNG COMPANY'S DESCRIPTIVE lilST. 

Scrap Books, and How to Make Them. 

Containing full Instructions for making a Complete and 
Systematic Set of Useful Books. By E. W. Gurley. 
Cloth extra, 12mo. In Press. 

Extract from Author's ''I^^troductiok." 
Our life is a living Scrap Book. ..... 

And what a book ! Here a gleam of Poetry, there a long 
dreary stretch of Prose, now the tragedy of an Accident— r 
nothing to the world, but a calamity to him — then a ripple of 
Fun, a dash of Sentiment, a thrill of Joy, a pang of Grief. 

The man of highest attainments, whom the world calls thor- 
oughly educated, knows he is nothing but an animated Scrap- 
Book. A smattering of the Languages, a little of Mathematics, 
a glimpse of Science, a few of the odds and ends of Nature, 
jumbled together and pasted in mosaically — this is all, and no 
one knows it better than he. ...... 

CONTENTS. 



I. Intkodtjction, 
II. My Experience. 

III. Why Should we Make Scrap- 

BOOKS ? 

IV. Who Should Make Scrap-Books ? 
V. Gathering the Materials. 

VI. Selecting the Articles. 
VII. Classifying the Articles. 
VIII. Preparing the Articles. 



IX. Number and Names of Books. 
X. Making the Book. 
XI. Recipes for Paste, Ac. 
XII. Making a Press— illustrated. 

XIII. Paging and Indexing the Book. 

XIV. Specimen of Indexes. 

XV. Specimen Pages of Scrap-Books. 
XVI. Scrap-Books as Home Amuse- 
ments. 



Extract from " Why Should we Make Scrap-Books ? " 

In Franklin's day there were two newspapers in America ; 
now there are about 8000 periodicals of all grades, constantly 
flooding the land with a stream of intelligence. Much of this 
is ephemeral, born for the day and dying with the day; yet 
scarcely a paper falls into the hands of the intelligent reader in 
which he does not see something worth keeping. * * 
Extract from " Who Should keep a Scrap-Book ? " 

Every one w^ho reads . . . . . . . 

Jefferson was in the habit of collecting, in this form, all the 
information bearing on certain points in which he was interested. 

Sumner was an habitual gatherer of Scraps, and found them 
invaluable aids to even his vast field of information. 

It is said of another noted Congressman that he dreaded an 
opponent of much inferior powers, because the latter was a care- 
ful compiler of Scrap-Books, and thus had a fund of knowledge 
which the more brilliant man did not possess. 

President Hayes is also a practical believer in Scrap-Books, 
and has already a large collection. 

Extract from " Gathering the Materials." 
. Look at every old paper, almanac, circular and scrap 
of paper before throwing it away. It will astonish you to see 
how many things people trample under their feet which should 
be put into their heads. 



MECHANICAL EXECUTION OF BOOKS 

PUBLISHED BY 

THE AUTHORS' PUBLISHING COMPANY. 



FIRST YEAR, 1S7;?. 

Seems to be in competent and reliable hands. — Pliila. Chronicle. 

Is destined to grow to mammoth proportions. — Griffin, Ga., Star. 

Has been in successful operation for some time, and is doing an im- 
portant work. — Georgia Christian Index. 

A grand success. Issues frequent books. The gentleman at its 
head is active and able. — Harrisburgh, Pa., Temperance Vindicator. 

They certainly do their work well. No handsomer books in letter- 
press and binding come to our table. — Baltimore Methodist Protestant. 

We can and do cheerfully commend to our readers any book bear- 
ing their imprint, as we feel assured that nothing will pass their 
examination save the purest and best. — Louisville Saturday Review. 

SECOND YEAR, 18T4. 

Their binding is elegant. — Baltimore Epis. Register. 

The company I am told do a very good business. — Cor. N. 0. Times. 

This company means business, as its numerous publications amply 
indicate. — Philadelphia Day. 

It is not a company for publishing everything that may happen, to 
be offered John Stuart MiU advocated just such a pub- 
lishing association years ago, but he died without the sight. It has 
been reserved for America — the youngest, and destined, no doubt, to 
be one of the greatest nations of the world — to establish it. From 
present appearances it is on a firm footing. It has its publishing, 
sales and printing departments all under good headway, and con- 
trolled by a competent board of officers. — Washington Gazette, 

THIRD YEAR, 1875. 

Excellent taste. — Kev. T. McCauley, Hackettstown, N. J. 

The execution is exceptionally good. — Boone Co., Pa., Republican. 

Beautiful specimens of typographical and binding art. — Baltimore 
Meth. Protestant. 

Printing, paper, and binding are combined to make ornaments to 
the library. — Atlanta Christian Index. 

The material and style of the publishers' work is capital, attractive 
and tasteful. — Columbia, S. C, Register. 

I admire very greatly and rejoice at the success the enterprise has 
met with. — Eev. G. W. Eael, D.D., Brooklyn, Ontario, Ca. 

(45) 



46 THE authors' publishing company's descriptive list. 

The books are elegantly gotten up and finely printed with clear 
new type. We are glad to know that the company is meeting with 
steady success. — P(nneroy''s Democrat, N. Y. 

A leading New York publishing house whose taste and experience 
in book-making are a sufficient guaranty of the style in which a book 
will be gotten up. . . First class printing, elegant binding and 
fine illustrations. — Westjield, Pa., Idea. 

FOURTH YEAR, 1876. 

The company does its own printing. — Literary World, Boston. 

I am very much pleased with your style of binding and getting 
up. — Rev. W. Undeewood, D.D., West Berkshire, Vt. 

Already this company's success is assured beyond a doubt. It has 
members in nearly every one of the States, has weathered the past 
three years of financial stringency, and has issued a fair line of pub- 
lications, some of which have already achieved an enviable reputation. 
In doing this latter it has brought out several authors of merit whose 
lack of means, influence, and business experience would have forever 
kept them in the back-ground. And what it has done thus far is but 
a small indication of what its great purpose is. Its management has 
been economical and cautious but energetic and prompt, showing 
clearly that its officers are men of ability and tact. Its annual state- 
ment of January 1, 1876, shows $100,000 invested, and only $396.17 
of debts.— jTemperance Vindicator, Harrishurg, Pa, 

FIFTH YEAR, 18T7. 

Elegantly bound. — San Francisco New Age. 

The Authors' Publishing Company is a remarkably successful or- 
ganization. There is a breadth and an enterprise about this under- 
taking which stamps it as one of the most remarkable even of the 
present intellectual age. It was regularly chartered and organized 
in 1873, with a paid-up capital of $100,000, properly secured. It 
brings out books as quickly and as handsome as any publishing house. 
We find that to-day the Authors' Publishing Company is one of the 
most popular and flourishing concerns in existence. The books pub- 
lished by the Company are sold by all of the leading book stores in 
this country, and by some in Europe ; and many of the foremost 
men in the world of literature have their books published by it. 
The business arrangements of the Company are straightforward and 
clear. There are now 128 members, residing in every State of the 
Union.- — New York Trade Journal. 

SIXTH YEAR, 1878. 

Neatly made.— iV^. Y. Post. 

Tastefully bound. — Baltimore Sunday News. 

Very tastefully printed. — Baltimore Bulletin. 



THE author's PUBLISHINa COMPANY'S DESCRIPTIVE lilST. 4:7 

Very neatly printed. — Chicago Sat. Ev. Herald. 

Beautifully gotten up. — Piatt sburgTi Republican. 

A credit to the house from which they come. — Bridgeport Standard. 

Entirely creditable to the Company. — Essex Co. Press, Newark. 

I am thoroughly pleased with the books ; just right in size ; paper 
and type are excellent. — Col. C. A. Sumner, author of " Poems" etc. 

We have had occasion, to speak in praise of several of the pubUca- 
tions of this house. We venture the after-thought that our praise 
was judicious. They are beautifully printed and elegant to behold. — 
South, N. Y. 

SEVENTH YEAR, 18T9. 

Beautifully bound and printed. — Baltimore Epis. Meth. 

Very tasteful and beautiful bindings. — Richmond Whig. 

Very, neatly printed and in attractive bindings. — Baltimorean. 

Gotten up in a fresh style and in plain type. — Pittsburg Leader. 

Beautiful from the hands of the publishers. — Chicago Inter- Ocean. 

Typography and ** get up " are done very tastefully. — Baltimore 
Every Saturday. 

Elegantly bound — deserve places on the parlor table of every family. 
— Hudson Co. Ledger, N. J. 

The publishers have done their duty in getting their books out in 
very attractive style. — Lynchburg Virginian. 

Pubhshed in excellent style, the binding being specially attractive. 
Their books are elegantly made. — N. Y. Mail. 

Neatly and tastefully gotten out. The pubhshers have done them- 
selves great credit in the typographical appearance of their work. — 
Brown's Phonographic Monthly, JST. Y. 



POSTSCRIPT. 

. [From the "Publishers' Weekly," May 3, 1879.] 

The Authors' PuBLisHiNa Co. are making extensive improve- 
ments in the arrangement of their store and offices at their old stand, 
27 Bond street. The reception-room, or general business office, and 
book-keeper's and entry -clerk's offices remain in the front part of the 
first floor, while the private offices for president, secretary, and board 
of directors are located in the rear of the building. The front offices 
are finished in black walnut and ash, and the rear offices are in black 
walnut with hangings of brown and gold. In the extreme rear of the 
private offices a pretty conservatory is being added, which gives a de- 
lightfully aesthetic effect. Judging from the present demonstrations 
of cabinet-makers, painters, and upholsterers, the offices are to be 
among the most elegant as well as comfortable of publishing houses — 
an indication of increasing prosperity. 



THE AUTHOKS PUBLISHING COMPANY S DESCKIPTIVE LIST. 

Author's Manuscript Paper. 

Our own manufacture, of white paper, made from superior 
stock, and sold only in ream packages — each package war- 
ranted to contain full count of 480 sheets. 
Author's Manuscript Paper, No. 2, 5| -}- 11, per ream. . .$1.00 
Author's Manuscript Paper, No. 1, 5| -j- 11, per ream. . . 1.25 

Note,— When paper is sent by mail 50 cents per ream, in addition to price, must 
accompany order to prepay postage. 

How IT IS Sold so Cheap. 

It is only by making a specialty of this paper, manufacturing directly at the mills in 

large quantities and selling exclusivelj'^ for cash, that the demand can be supplied at this 

low price. It is really nearly one hundred per cent cheaper than any other paper in 

tne market. 

How Every Buyer Gets His Money's Worth. 

It is made with strong fibre and smooth surface, in two grades only, (Nos. 1 and 2). 

These grades are similar in quality, and differ merely in weight. 

The shape and style (ruled on one side, the other side plain), is approved by writers 

and preferred by printers ; and it has now become the popular standard paper for 

authors, contributors, editors, and writers generally. 

How this Department is Managed. 

Six years ago the Authors' Pub. Co. introduced this paper to authors and writers. 
Its sale grew so rapidly that the JMa.uuscript Paper Kepartnieut became an 
exclusive and permanent feature. 

The Company sells no other stationery. The pi'esent large sales of this paper to 
Booksellers and Stationers, to Newspaper Publishers (for editorial use)— including many 
leading Dailies and Weeklies in New York City— and to writers everywhere, justify the 
theory that the greater care and attention bestowed upon this Special Line, results in 
greater satisfaction alike to dealers and consumers. 

How Everybody Speaks or It. 

We find it just what teacners and pupils need.— iVew England Journal of Education. 

Celebrated for the use of authors and contributors. It is of excellent quality, and 
convenient to both writer and ^vratQv.— Providence Town and Country. 

The distinguishing feature of the Manuscript Paper is its convenient shape. The 
texture is neither too thick nor too thin, making it in every way a desirable paper for 
writers and contributors.— -^ciJa Columbiana, New York. 

Manuscript Manual. 

How to Prepare Manuscripts for the Press. A practical, 
concise and reliable guide for authoi;^, contributors and 
writers generally. Paper covers Price 10 cents. 

" Sound and Useful." 
Worth tenfold its price. — Philadelphia Day. 

The instructions are sound and are much needed. — Boston Beacon. 
Gives excellent hints to intending writers. — Cleveland Evangelical Messenger. 
A most useful little companion to the young writer and editor.— 2%e South, N. Y. 

" Punctuation— A Volume in a Nut Shell." 
Will really give you a great deal of useful information —Louisville Home and School. 
Is practically written. The chapter on punctuation is a volume in a nutshell.— 
London Paper and Printing Trade Journal. 

Letter Writing. 
While the suggestions it contains on writing for the press are most valuable, it Avould 
not be amiss for all young people to read and practice the rules given in its pages. The 
art of letter writing could be more easily learned from it than from a score of "letter 
writers." We most heartily commend it.— Chamixiign {111.) Gazette. 






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